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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/historyofphotogr00harr_0 


A HISTORY 


OF 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


WRITTEN  AS 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  AND  AN  INTRODUCTION 
TO  ITS  LATEST  DEVELOPMENTS. 


W.  JEROME  HARRISON,  F.  G.  S., 


WITH 


A BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  AUTHOR,  AND  AN  APPENDIX  BY 
DR.  MADDOX  ON  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  GELA- 
TINO-BROMIDE  PROCESS. 


NEW  YORK : 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 
W.  Irving  Adams,  Agent. 


1887. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by  the 
ScoviLL  Manufacturing  Company, 

'In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TIMES  PRINT. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction 5 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Origin  of  Photography 7 

CHAPTER  II. 

Some  Pioneers  of  Photography — Wedgwood  and  Niepce 13 

CHAPTER  HI. 

The  Daguerreotype  Process 21 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Fox-Talbot  and  the  Calotype  Process 28 

CHAPTER  V. 

Scott-Archer  and  the  Collodion  Process 38 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Collodion  Dry-Plates,  with  the  Bath 45 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Collodion  Emulsion 54 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Gelatine  Emulsion  with  Bromide  of  Silver 58 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Introduction  of  Gelatino-Bromide  Emulsion  as  an  Article  of 
Commerce  by  Burgess  and  by  Kennett 64 

CHAPTER  X. 

Gelatine  Displaces  Collodion 71 

CHAPTER  XI. 

History  of  Photographic  Printing  Processes 78 

CHAPTER  XII. 

History  of  Photographic  Printing  Processes  (Continued) 96 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

History  of  Roller-Slides  ; and  of  Negative-Making  on  Paper 

AND  ON  Films 107 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

History  of  Photography  in  Colors 117 

CHAPTER  XV. 

History  of  the  Introduction  of  Developers — Summing  up 126 

APPENDIX. 

Dr.  Maddox  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Gelatino-Bromide  Pro- 
cess  130 

A Biographic  Sketch  of  the  Author 134 


PREFACE. 


As  “ Chapters  in  the  History  of  Photography,”  a large  part 
of  this  volume  was  originally  published  in  The  Photographic 
Times.  In  that  widely-read  journal  the  “Chapters”  attracted 
to  themselves  so  much  well-deserved  attention,  that,  in  response 
to  the  very  evident  demand  on  the  part  of  the  photographic 
fraternity,  the  publisliers  decided  to  present  them  in  the  more 
permanent  and  convenient  form  which  their  value  and  popu- 
larity seemed  to  require. 

Assisted  by  the  author,  and  with  his  approval,  Mr.  "W.  I. 
Lincoln  Adams,  editor  of  The  Photographic  Times,  has  ar- 
ranged the  “ Chapters  ” in  their  present  form,  added  a bio- 
graphical sketch  of  the  author,  and  the  supplementary  chap- 
ters, by  the  author,  on  the  History  of  Photographic  Printing 
Processes  and  on  the  History  of  Photography  in  Colors ; and 
the  Appendix,  by  Hr.  Maddox,  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Gela- 
tino-Bromide  Process. 

The  frontispiece  portrait  of  the  author  is  a “Moss-type,”  by 
the  Moss  Engraving  Company,  of  this  city,  after  a negative 
by  Harold  Baker,  of  Birmingham,  England. 

The  Publishers. 


New  York,  October  1,  1887. 


INTRODUCTION. 


One  great  charm  of  Photography  is  that  it  unites  in  the 
bonds  of  friendship  men  of  all  the  countries  under  the  sun — 
their  common  helper.  Personally,  I should  feel  grateful  to 
Photography  if  it  had  done  nothing  more  than  make  me  ac- 
quainted with  those  kind  friends  beyond  the  seas  who  have 
taught  me  to  realize  so  strongly  the  unity  of  our  race,  and  to 
feel  that  between  Englishman  and  American  there  ought  to 
be  the  sincerest  sympathy,  the  pleasantest  rivalry. 

I am  especially  glad  that  my  first  book  on  photography  will 
be  first  published  in  the  United  States,  for  I am  convinced 
that  it  will  there  find  readers  not  less  generous  than  critical, 
and  not  more  critical  than  appreciative. 

When  our  kind  friend,  Mr.  W.  J.  Stillman — who  has  won 
d.istinction  and  is  equally  at  home  in  the  two  hemispheres — 
first  pressed  me  to  write  for  the  Photographic  Times ^ he 
recommended  practical  ” subjects.  And  in  this  History  of 
Photography  I believe  I have  chosen  something  directly  use- 
ful and  practical,  though,  perhaps,  a few  will  be  at  first  dis- 
posed to  question  the  utility  of  such  a record  of  the  past. 
‘‘  Don’t  tell  us  these  old  tales  ! ” some  budding  camera  knight 
of  full  twenty-four  hours’  standing  will  exclaim,  ‘^our  pro- 
cesses are  perfect,  and  we  care  for  nothing  else  ! ” 

But  photography  is  an  evolutionary  science.  The  key  to 
the  proper  comprehension  of  the  present  lies  in  the  past ; and 
no  man  can  afford  to  neglect  the  rich  mine  of  experience 
whicli  is  furnished  by  the  work  of  his  predecessors.  Perhaps 
in  no  other  art  have  so  many  things  been  discovered  and  re- 
discovered, and  patented  twenty  times  over,  as  in  photography. 
Even  to-day  it  only  requires  a diligent  study  of  the  photo- 
graphic literature  of  the  past  to  bring  to  light  many  germs 
which,  with  our  more  advanced  knowledge,  can  be  perfected 
and  turned  to  sources  of  pleasure  and  of  profit. 

Then  photography  ought  to  be  learned  — and  taught  — 
historically.  Let  no  man  call  himself  a photographer  ” on 
the  strength  of  having  fired  off  a few  gelatine  dry-plates.  To 


6 


INTRODUCTION. 


obtain  a competent  knowledge  of  the  science,  you  must  work 
your  way  experimentally  along  the  historical  path.  Repeat 
the  experiments  of  Riepce  and  Daguerre,  of  Fox-Talbot«and 
Scott-Archer,  and  you  will  learn  to  appreciate  the  labors  of 
these  “ fathers  of  photography  ” ; will  sympathize  with  their 
difficulties,  and  glory  in  their  ultimate  success. 

Not  only  will  you  produce  a collection  of  most  interesting 
specimens,  but  you  will  accumulate  a store  of  solid  knowledge, 
and  will  return  to  your  gelatine  dry-plates  a master  instead  of 
an  apprentice. 

To  the  many  whose  other  avocations  and  want  of  time  for- 
bid so  complete  a course,  we  still  say,  “ Study  the  past ! ” 
Buy  the  old  books  as  well  as  the  new  ones ; they  will  all  teach 
you  something.  So  far  from  photography  having  attained 
perfection,  we  believe  it  to  be  but  as  a little  child.  Great  are 
our  hopes  and  wondrous  our  visions  of  its  future ; but  every 
advance  must  be  made  step  by  step,  and  to  successfully  climb 
the  pyramid  of  knowledge — which,  unlike  other  pyramids,  is 
daily  increasing  in  altitude — we  must  start  from  the  hase  ! 

Then,  have  not  the  ^‘men  of  might”  who  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  our  science,  a claim  that  we  should  make  ourselves 
acquainted  with  their  lives  and  their  work  \ What  soldier  is 
there  that  does  not  love  to  read  of  Wellington  and  Bonaparte, 
of  Grant  and  Lee  ? With  equal  interest  ought  the  children 
of  the  sun  ” to  follow  the  painful  path  of  Niepce,  and  stand  by 
the  death-bed  of  Scott-Archer — the  photographer  who  gave 
his  precious  discovery  freely  for  the  use  of  all,  and  who  died 
poor  and  before  his  time,  because  he  had  overstrained  his 
powers  in  the  cause  of  our  science. 

Let  us  hope  that  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  pho- 
tographic societies  which  has  marked  the  last  few  years,  will 
lead  to  the  establishment  of  libraries  in  connection  with  them, 
and  the  formation  of  modest  museums  in  which  interesting 
relics,  illustrating  old  processes,  may  be  preserved,  so  that 
greater  facilities  may  be  afforded  for  the  study  of  the  history 
of  photography.  As  an  introduction  to  that  history  this  hum- 
ble book  has  l)een  written  by 

W.  Jerome  Harrison. 

Science  Laboratory,  Icknield  Street,  Birmingham,  England. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ORIGIN  OP  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Early  llecords  of  the  Action  of  Light  upon  Matter. — Plio- 
tograpliy  is  tlie  child  of  optics  and  chemistry.  As  neither  of 
these  sciences  attained  anything  like  a full  development  until 
the  present  century,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  art  of  taking 
photographs  was  unknown  to  our  ancestors.  And  yet  there  are 
many  facts  that  must  have  been  known,  even  to  the  ancients, 
whose  meaning,  if  rightly  appreciated,  would  liave  led  to  the 
early  discovery  of  the  art  of  photography.  For  example, 
lenses  are  all  but  absolutely  necessary  to  the  taking  of  photo- 
graphs, and  a lens  has  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Nine- 
veh, a city  which  was  destroyed  more  than  a thousand  years 
before  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  lens  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  manufacture  and 
properties  of  simple  lenses  were  well  understood  in  Europe. 

The  changes  produced  by  the  action  of  light  upon  matter 
are  so  common  as  to  be  matters  of  every-day  observation.  At 
a very  early  stage  of  civilization  the  tanning  or  bronzing  of  the 
human  skin  by  the  solar  rays  must  have  been  noticed,  even  if 
the  black  skin  of  the  negro  was  not  assigned  to  its  true  cause 
— a constant  residence  beneatli  the  intense  rays  of  a tropical 
sun.  A hundred  years  before  Christ,  the  Roman  philosopher, 
Pliny,  noticed  and  recorded  the  fact  that  yellow  wax  is  bleached 
by  exposure  to  sunlight.  The  Creeks  knew  well  that  certain 
gems — the  opal  and  the  amethyst  more  especially — lost  their 
luster  from  the  same  cause ; while  the  great  Roman  architect 
and  painter,  Yitruvius,  was  so  conscious  of  the  decolorizing 
effect  of  sunlight  that  he  invariably  placed  his  paintings  in 
rooms  facing  the  north. 


8 


A HISTORY  OF  RHOTOORAPHY. 


The  Alchemists  and  Horn  Silver. — During  the  Middle 
Ages  almost  the  only  inquirers  into  the  secrets  of  nature  were 
the  alchemists,  who  vainly  sought  the  philosopher’s  stone 
which  should  transmute  the  baser  metals  into  gold.  But 
though  their  search  was  vain,  yet,  as  so  often  happens,  these 
experimenters — Boger  Bacon,  Albert  Magnus,  Paracelsus,  and 
a host  of  smaller  lights — although  they  did  not  find  what  they 
were  looking  for,  yet  they  made  many  discoveries  of  great 
value.  The  storehouse  of  nature  is  so  rich  that  even  the 
blind  seeker  is  rewarded.  And  so  these  old  alchemists  be- 
came acquainted  with  some  of  the  most  powerful  agents  of 
modern  chemistry — the  acids  for  example — and,  as  the  centu- 
ries rolled  by,  their  discoveries  bore  fruit. 

Among  those  alchemists  who  experimented  with  the  com- 
pounds of  silver  we  find  the  name  of  Fabricius,  who  in  1556 
published  a book  upon  metals. 

Horn-silver,  or  luna  cornea  as  it  was  then  termed,  was  the 
name  given  to  a semi-transparent  compound  of  silver  and 
chlorine  which  occurred  as  an  ore  in  the  silver  mines  of  Ger- 
many, but  which  Fabricius  found  could  be  prepared  by  adding 
a solution  of  common  salt  to  a solution  of  silver  nitrate. 
Fabricius  and  his  co-workers  appear  to  have  been  much  sur- 
prised when  they  noticed  that  this  silver  compound — white 
when  freshly  prepared — quickly  turned  black  when  exposed 
to  the  sunlight ; but  as  the  fact  appeared  to  have  no  relation 
to  the  object  which  engrossed  all  their  thoughts — the  search 
for  gold — no  attempt  was  made  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of 
this  surprising  change ; a change  which  must  also  have  been 
noticed  by  the  miners  who  extracted  the  ore. 

Schulzds  Experiment. — During  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  many  instances  were  recorded  of  the  effect  of 
light  in  changing  the  colors  of  bodies ; but,  as  the  result  is 
most  rapid  and  most  striking  in  the  case  of  compounds  of  sil- 
ver, it  was  to  these  that  attention  appears  to  have  been  chiefiy 
directed. 

In  1727,  J.  H.  Schulze  actually  obtained  copies  of  writing 
by  placing  the  written  characters  upon  a level  surface  pre- 
viously prepared  with  a mixture  of  chalk  and  silver-nitrate 
solution.  The  rays  of  sunlight  passing  through  the  translucent 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


9 


paper  blackened  the  silver  compound  beneath,  except  where  it 
was  protected  by-  the  ink  forming  the  letters,  and  thus  a white 
copy  upon  a black  ground  was  obtained.  Although  we  can- 
not, on  the  strength  of  tliis  single  experiment,  assign  to  Schulze 
the  title  which  Dr.  Eder  claims  for  him  as  the  discoverer  of 
photography,”  yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  exjieriment  was 
a very  remarkable  one,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  it 
was  not  successfnlly  and  quickly  followed  up. 

Soheele  examines  Silver  Chloride. — Charles  William  Scheele 
of  Stralsund  (then  a Swedish  town),  was  a distinguished  inves- 
tigator, who  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  founders  of  mod- 
ern chemistry.  In  1T77,  he  made  the  first  scientific  investiga- 
tion of  the  behavior  of  silver  chloride  under  the  infiuence  of 
light.  First  he  noted  the  action  of  differently  colored  light, 
showing  that  while  the  silver  salt  was  quickly  darkened  by 
violet  or  blue  light,  the  red  and  yellow  rays  had  much  less 
effect  upon  it.  His  results  were  confirmed  by  Senebier  in  1782, 
who  wrote  that  ‘‘  in  fifteen  seconds  the  violet  rays  blackened 
silver  chloride  as  much  as  the  red  rays  did  in  twenty  minutes.” 
lint  Scheele  also  discovered  the  cause  of  the  darkening.  He 
exposed  chloride  of  silver  to  the  action  of  sunlight  underneath 
water,  reasoning,  doubtless,  that  the  water  would  arrest  and 
dissolve  any  substance  which  might  be  given  off  under  the 
action  of  light.  When  the  white  salt  of  silver  had  blackened, 
Scheele  poured  away  the  water  and  added  to  it  a little  silver 
nitrate.  Immediately  a white  substance  was  formed  (owing 
to  the  silver  nitrate  combining  with  chlorine  dissolved  in  the 
water),  which  was  silver  chloride  formed  anew.  Thus  Scheele 
proved  that  the  effect  of  white  light  upon  silver  chloride  is  to 
decompose  it,  and  cause  it  to  give  up  some  or  all  of  its  chlo- 
rine. As  to  whether  the  black  residue  is  metallic  silver  (which 
appears  black  when  in  a very  fine  state  of  subdivision),  or  is  a 
compound  known  as  silver  sub-chloride  (AggCl),  that  is  a mat- 
ter upon  which  chemists  even  yet  are  not  agreed.  Scheele’s 
conclusions  were  doubted  by  Count  Humford,  whose  paper 
entitled  An  Enquiry  Concerning  the  Chemical  Properties 
that  have  been  attributed  to  Light,”  was  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Poyal  Society  for  1798. 
He  considered  that  the  changes  observed  were  due  to  heat 


10 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


rather  than  to  light;  but  his  arguments  were  successfully  con- 
troverted by  Robert  Harrup,  who,  in  the  case  of  the  salts  of 
mercury  at  all  events,  conclusively  proved  (^N icholson^ s Jour- 
nal^ 1802)  that  light  alone  was  the  determining  agent  of  the 
changes  observed. 

Invention  of  the  Camera  Ohscura. — It  was  not  till  near  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  any  one,  with  the  excep- 
tion, perhaps,  of  Schulze,  seems  to  have  thought  of  applying 
the  changes  of  color  produced  by  the  action  of  light  upon  sil- 
ver compounds  to  any  practical  purpose.  And  yet  the  instru- 
ment called  the  camera  obscura  had  long  been  known,  and 
those  who  gazed  upon  the  beautiful  pictures  produced  by  its 
agency  must  often  have  longed  to  find  some  method  by  which 
they  might  be  fixed  and  retained.  Invented  by  the  Italian 
philosopher  Baptista  Porta  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  camera  obscura  at  first  consisted  simply — as  its 
name  implies — of  a darkened  room  to  which  light  was  admit- 
ted only  through  a single  small  hole  in  the  window-shutter. 
In  such  a room,  when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly,  a faint  in- 
verted image  of  external  objects,  as  the  houses,  trees,  etc., 
upon  which  the  window  looks,  is  *seen  upon  the  white  surface 
of  the  wall  or  screen  within  the  room  which  faces  the  window. 
Porta  improved  this  primitive  contrivance  by  placing  a double 
convex  glass  lens  in  the  aperture  of  the  shutter,  outside  which 
a mirror  was  placed  to  receive  the  rays  of  light  and  reflect 
them  through  the  lens.  The  image  upon  the  screen  within 
was  thus  made  brighter  and  more  distinct,  and  was  moreover 
shown  in  a natural  or  erect  position.  Crowds  flocked  to 
Porta’s  house  in  Kaples  to  see  these  pictures  painted  by  light, 
glowing  with  color,  and  depicted  with  marvelous  accuracy. 
Soon  further  improvements  were  made,  and  the  camera  ob- 
scura became  a favorite  adjunct  to  the  country  houses  of  the 
wealthy,  often  taking  the  form  of  a small  circular  building, 
erected  if  possible  on  a hilltop.  'The  lens  was  then  usually 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  conical  roof,  with  a slanting  mir- 
ror arranged  so  as  to  reflect  the  light  from  surrounding  ob- 
jects downward  through  the  lens ; the  picture  thus  formed 
was  received  upon  the  whitened  surface  of  a table  placed 
within  the  little  building.  Such  erections  are  still  not  un- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


11 


common  in  places  of  popular  out-door  resort,  and  interesting 
discoveries  are  not  unfrequentlj  made  by  those  who  have 
gained  admittance,  as  to  the  doings  of  unsuspecting  outsiders, 
who  little  think  that  their  proceedings  are  pictured  for  the  de- 
lectation of  others. 

Now  the  photographer’s  camera  is  a miniature  camera  ob- 
scura,  being  nothing  more  than  a well-made  box  having  a lens 
at  one  end  and  a ground  glass  screen  at  the  other.  Still,  a 
modern  camera  made  by  one  of  the  masters  of  the  art  of  cab- 
inet-making as  applied  to  photography,  and  provided  with  a 
battery  of  first-class  lenses,  is  nothing  less  than  a work  of  art, 
and  is  correspondingly  expensive. 

Early  Visions  of  Photography . — A Chinese  tradition  cred- 
its the  sun  with  sometimes  producing  pictures  of  the  neigh- 
boring objects  upon  the  ice-covered  surfaces  of  lakes  and 
rivers.  A similar  idea  must  have  possessed  the  mind  of 
Fenelon,  when,  in  1690,  he  wrote  his  fable  called  “ Une 
Voyage  Suppose,”  descri]3tive  of  the  imaginary  journeys  of 
an  imaginary  personage,  in  which  the  following  passage  oc- 
curs : “ There  was  no  painter  in  that  country  ; but  if  any- 
body wished  to  have  the  portrait  of  a friend,  of  a picture,  a 
beautiful  landsca^De,  or  of  any  other  object,  water  was  placed 
in  great  basins  of  gold  or  silver,  and  the  object  desired  to  be 
painted  was  placed  in  front  of  that  water.  After  a while  the 
water  froze  and  became  a glass  mirror,  on  which  an  inefface- 
able image  remained.” 

But  it  was  reserved  for  another  Frenchman,  Tiphaigne  de 
la  Boche,  to  make  a still  nearer  guess  • as  to  the  manner  in 
which  nature  printed”  pictures  would  one  day  be  produced. 
In  1760  he  wrote  a book  entitled  “ Ciphantie”  (an  anagram 
of  his  own  name),  containing  a series  of  wild  imaginings,  one 
of  which  must  have  appeared  especially  improbable  to  his  con- 
temporaries, although  it  has  since  been  literally  fulfilled.  The 
hero  of  “ Giphantie”  is  carried  by  a hurricane  to  a strange 
land,  where  he  is  shown  the  method  by  which  the  native 
genii  produced  pictures.  You  know,”  said  the  guide, 
that  rays  of  light  reflected  from  different  bodies  form  pic- 
tures, paint  the  image  reflected  on  all  polished  surfaces,  for 
example,  on  the  retina  of  the  eye,  on  water,  and  on  glass. 


12 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  spirits  have  sought  to  fix  these  fleeting  images ; they 
have  made  a subtle  matter  by  means  of  which  a picture  is 
formed  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  They  coat  a piece  of  can- 
vas with  this  matter,  and  place  it  in  front  of  the  object  to  be 
taken.  The  first  effect  of  this  cloth  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
mirror,  but  by  means  of  its  viscous  nature  the  prepared  can- 
vas, as  is  not  the  case  with  the  mirror,  retains  a fac-sirnile  of 
the  image.  The  mirror  represents  images  faithfully,  but  re- 
tains none  ; our  canvas  reflects  them  no  less  faithfully,  but  re- 
tains them  all.  This  impression  of  the  image  is  instantane- 
ous. The  canvas  is  then  removed  and  deposited  in  a dark 
place.  An  hour  later  the  impression  is  dry,  and  you  have  a 
picture  the  more  precious  in  that  no  art  can  imitate  its  truth- 
fulness.” 

After  reading  this  very  remarkable  prophecy,  one  can  hardly 
help  thinking  that  De  la  Roche  must  have  conceived  the  idea 
after  viewing  the  pictures  shown  with  Porta’s  “ dark  cham- 
ber,” a contrivance  which  was  then,  as  we  know,  in  vogue. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 

SOME  PIONEERS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY— WEDGWOOD  AND  NIEPCE. 

Claims  of  Charles  and  of  Boulton. — The  discovery  of 
photography,  altogether  or  in  part,  has  been  claimed  for  at 
least  two  men,  who  attained  distinction  in  science  towards  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  has  been  stated  that  Pro- 
fessor Charles,  who  was  well  known  in  Paris  as  a lecturer  on 
chemistry  and  physics  about  the  year  ITSO,  not  uncommonly 
(as  a lecture  experiment)  obtained  profiles  of  the  heads  of  his 
students  by  placing  them  so  that  the  required  shadow  of  the 
features  was  cast  by  a strong  beam  of  sunlight  upon  a sheet  of 
paper  coated  with  chloride  of  silver.  As  the  light  would  dis- 
color that  portion  of  the  paper  upon  which  it  fell,  the  result 
was  a white  outline  of  the  face  upon  a black  background.  But 
this  statement  is  a mere  tradition,  and  the  best  authorities  have 
considered  it  “ too  vague  and  improbable  to  be  taken  into  seri- 
ous account.” 

Some  twenty  years  back,  an  attempt  was  made  to  prove  that 
Matthew  Boulton,  the  partner  of  James  Watt,  was  acquainted 
with  a method  of  producing  photographs,  at  least  as  early  as 
1777.  But  the  numerous  pictures  which  about  that  date  were 
sold  by  the  famous  Birmingham  firm  of  Boulton  & Watt,  were 
executed  by  a mechanical  process — possibly  aquatint — the  in- 
vention of  an  ingenious  artist,  Mr.  Eginton,  who  was  then  em- 
ployed at  the  great  Soho  factory.  These  j^ictures  were  of  large 
size,  as  much  as  five  feet  by  four,  and  were  colored.  In  a se- 
ries of  pamphlets  published  in  186d-5,  Boulton’s  grandson — 
Mr.  M.  P.  W.  Boulton — clearly  proved  that  photography  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  production  of  these  pictures.  Living 
in  that  district  of  Birmingham  where  Boulton  and  Watt  did 
their  work,  we  have  carefully  studied  this  question,  and  can 
endorse  the  conclusions  arrived  at  and  very  ably  stated  by  the 
younger  Boulton.  A claim  to  rank  as  a discoverer  of  photog- 


•14 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


raphy  recently  made  on  behalf  of  Lord  Brougham  rests  only 
on  his  statement  that  in  a paper  communicated  by  him  to  the 
Koyal  Society  in  1795,  he  suggested  the  use  of  a plate  of  ivory 
rubbed  with  nitrate  of  silver,  as  a surface  which  might  secure, 
permanently,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  obscura.  But  as  this 
paragraph  did  not  appear  in  the  published  paper  (Brougham 
says  it  was  eliminated  by  the  secretary),  we  cannot  seriously 
take  it  into  account. 

Copying  hy  Sunlight — Wedgwood  and  Davy. — With  the 
dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century  all  things  were  propitious  for 
the  rapid  advancement  of  matters  scientific.  Great  progress 
had  by  this  time  been  made  both  in  chemistry  and  in  optics ; 
while  the  art  of  experimenting — the  knowledge  of  how  to 
question  nature — had  become  familiar  to  many  men  of  talent 
and  education.  Thomas  Wedgwood,  fourth  son  of  the  great 
potter,  earnestly  studied  the  action  of  light  upon  certain  com- 
pounds of  silver.  He  was  encouraged  and  assisted  by  Hum- 
phrey Davy,  then  just  rising  into  fame  as  a chemist,  and  after 
Wedgwood’s  death  Davy  wrote  an  account  of  their  work, 
which  appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the  Hoy  at  Institution  for 
1802.  Wedgwood’s  best  results  were  obtained  by  coating 
paper  or  white  leather  with  a w-eak  solution  of  silver  nitrate. 
The  more  or  less  opaque  object  which  it  was  desired  to  copy 
was  then  placed  on  the  prepared  surface,  and  the  whole  ex- 
posed to  sunlight.  In  a few  minutes,  the  unprotected  portions 
of  the  paper  were  darkened,  and  when  the  opaque  object  was 
removed,  its  form  remained  in  white  upon  a black  ground. 
Paintings  on  glass  could  be  copied  in  this  way,  the  light  pass- 
ing through  the  transparent  and  semi-transparent  portions,  and 
blackening  the  sensitive  paper  placed  underneath.  Wedg- 
wood noticed  that  red  rays,  or  the  common  sunbeams  passed 
through  red  glass,  have  very  little  action  upon  paper  prepared 
in  this  manner ; yellow  and  green  are  moi'e  efiicacious,  but 
blue  and  violet  light  produce  the  most  decided  and  powerful 
effects.”  These  facts  had  been  previously  published  by 
Scheele  and  by  Senebier,  but  Wedgwood  does  not  appear  to 
have  known  of  their  work.  The  scantiness  of  scientific  litera- 
ture at  that  time,  and  tlie  difiiculty  of  communication  between 
different  countries,  were  indeed  great  hindrances  to  progress. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


15 


t 

The  workers  in  any  one  country  were  usually  ignorant  of  what 
had  been  done  elsewhere ; so  that  the  same  track  was  pursued 
again  and  again,  and  the  same  discoveries  made  several  times 
over.  Davy  made  some  important  additions  to  Wedgwood’s 
work.  He  found  that  the  chloride  was  much  more  sensitive 
to  light  than  the  nitrate  of  silver.  Both  W edgwood  and  Davy 
attempted  to  secure  the  pictures  formed  within  a camera,  upon 
paper  coated  with  these  salts  of  silver,  but  without  success. 
Davy,  however,  using  the  more  concentrated  light  of  the  solar 
microscope,  readily  obtained  images  of  small  objects  upon 
paper  prepared  with  silver  chloride. 

But  there  w^as  another  and  more  fatal  objection  to  this 
method  of  “ picturing  by  light,”  which  not  even  Davy,  with 
all  his  chemical  knowledge,  was  able  to  surmount.  When 
the  copies  obtained  were  exposed  to  daylight,  the  same  agency 
which  had  produced  the  picture  proceeded  to  destroy  it.  The 
action  of  sunlight  upon  the  white  or  lightly  shaded  portions 
constituting  the  picture  speedily  blackened  the  entire  surface 
of  the  paper  or  leather,  causing  the  whole  to  become  of  one 
uniform  tint  in  which  nothing  could  be  distinguished.  To 
prevent  this  it  was  clearly  necessary  to  remove  the  unacted-on 
silver  salt  after  the  image  had  been  formed,  and  before  the 
paper  was  exposed,  as  a whole,  to  daylight.  Long-continued 
washing  in  water  was  tried,  but  proved  ineffectual ; nor  was  a 
coating  of  transparent  varnish  found  of  any  service.  Davy 
does  not  seem  to  have  pursued  the  process  with  much  energy, 
and  the  whole  thing  dropped  into  obscurity.  Still  he  clearly 
recognized  its  capabilities,  for  he  writes : “ Hothing  but  a 
method  of  preventing  the  unshaded  parts  of  the  delineations 
from  being  colored  by  exposure  to  the  day  is  wanting  to  render 
this  process  as  useful  as  it  is  elegant.”  In  this  copying  pro- 
cess, devised  by  Wedgwood  and  improved  by  Davy,  we  see 
the  germ  of  the  ordinary  method  by  which  our  negative  pho- 
tographs on  glass  are  made  to  yield  a positive  proof  or  impres- 
sion upon  sensitized  paper. 

A Patient  Photographer  — Joseph  Nicephore  Niepce, — 
The  first  man  to  obtain  a permanent  photograph  was  Joseph 
Hicephore  Hiepce,  who  was  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone,  March 
7th,  1765.  Well  educated,  his  parents  designed  him  for  the 


16 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Church,  but  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  upset  all 
their  plans,  and  in  1794  Niepce  fought  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Republican  army  which  invaded  Italy.  Ill-health  soon  com- 
pelled his  retirement  from  active  service,  and,  marrying,  he 
settled  down  at  Chalons ; his  brother  Claude,  to  whom  he  was 
devotedly  attached,  residing  with  liim. 

Even  during  childhood,  the  fondness  of  the  brothers  Niepce 
for  scientific  pitrsuits  had  been  very  noticeable,  and  they  now 
applied  themselves  to  the  task  of  invention,  bringing  out  a 
machine  called  the  pyrelophore,  which  propelled  vessels  by 
the  aid  of  hot  air;  and  a velocipede,  the  ancestor  of  our  mod- 
ern bicycle.  Endeavoring  to  bring  these  inventions  before 
the  public,  Claude  went  to  Paris  in  1811,  and  al’terwards 
crossed  over  to  England,  where  he  settled  down  at  Kew. 

It  was,  apparently,  about  the  year  1813  that  Nicephore 
Niepce  began  the  experiments  which  resulted  in  his  discovery 
of  what  may  be  called  the  bitumen  process  in  photography. 
From  his  correspondence  with  his  brother  Claude,  we  learn 
something  of  this  method  ; and  when,  in  1827,  Nicephore  visi- 
ted his  brother  at  Kew,  he  brought  with  him  many  specimens 
of  his  work.  These  pictures,  the  first  permanent  photographs 
ever  produced,  Niepce  desired  to  bring  before  the  notice  of 
the  Royal  Society,  but  as  he  declined  to  publish  the  process 
by  which  they  were  produced  (being  desirous  to  perfect  it  be- 
fore making  it  public),  the  rules  of  the  society  compelled  them 
to  refuse  Niepce’s  communication.  Having  examined  several 
of  the  specimens  presented  by  this  early  French  experimenter 
to  his  Euglish  friends,  we  can  testify  to  the  successful  manner 
in  which  he  had  succeeded  in  copying  engravings. 

Making  but  a short  stay  in  England,  Niepce  returned  to 
France,  where,  in  1829,  he  entered  into  a partnership  with  an- 
other investigator  named  Daguerre.  But  Niepce  was  not 
destined  to  complete  his  work,  or  even  to  publish  his  results ; 
he  died  in  1833,  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight.  Although  it  is  im- 
possible to  assign  tlie  title  of  Inventor  of  Photography  ” to 
any  one  man,  yet  Niepce  has  probably  the  best  claim  to  it. 
Quite  recently  a statue  of  Niepce  has  been  erected  at  Chalons. 

Lithography  and  Photography. — Lithography,  invented  by 
a German,  Senefelder,  in  1798,  was  successfully  practiced  in 


A HISTORY  OF  PlIOTOGEAPHY\ 


17 


France  in  1812.  Expert  draughtsmen  were  required  to  exe- 
cute the  necessary  drawings  upon  the  prepared  surfaces  of  the 
smooth  blocks  of  limestone  employed,  blow  I^iepce  thought 
that  it  might  be  possible,  by  the  action  of  light,  to  cause  de- 
signs, engravings,  etc.,  to  coj^y  themselves  upon  the  litho- 
graphic stone.  The  basis  of  all  his  work  was  the  discovery 
that  bitumen,  or  Jew’s  pitch,”  as  it  was  then  commoidy 
called,  is  rendered  insoluble  by  the  action  of  light.  IN^iepce 
dissolved  bitumen  in  oil  of  lavender,  and  spread  a thin  layer 
of  it  upon  the  stone.  77ext  he  varnished  the  drawing  on 
paper,  of  which  he  desired  to  secure  an  impression — the  var- 
nish rendering  the  paper  fairly  transparent — and  laid  it  upon 
the  bitumenized  stone.  After  exposing  the  whole  to  sunlight 
for  an  hour  or  so,  the  paper  was  removed  and  oil  of  lavender 
poured  upon  the  bitumen,  by  which  those  portions  of  it  that 
had  been  protected  from  light  by  the  opaque  lines  of  the 
drawing  were  dissolved  away,  and  the  surface  of  the  stone 
beneath  was  in  those  parts  exposed.  Thus  the  outlines  of  the 
original  subject  were  reproduced  with  perfect  truth.  Lastly, 
by  treating  the  stone  with  an  acid,  the  exposed  portions  could 
be  ‘‘  bitten  ” or  eroded  more  deeply,  and  it  was  then  ready  for 
printing  from.  Finding  much  difficulty  in  securing  stone  of 
a sufficiently  line  and  close  grain,  Niepce  substituted  metal, 
employing  plates  of  polished  tin,  etc.,  on  which  to  spread  the 
bitumen.  Although  the  results  he  obtained  were  far  from 
perfect,  yet  they  were  very  promising,  and  heliography,  as 
Niepce  named  this  method,  has  since  proved  very  useful. 

• JSiepce  Secures  Photographs  in  the  Caynera, — Having  ob- 
tained pictures  by  what  we  may  call  contact-printing,  Niepce’s 
next  endeavor  was  to  apply  his  process  to  securing  the  beauti- 
ful views  produced  by  the  aid  of  a camera.  For  this  purj^ose 
he  tried  the  chlorides  of  silver  and  of  iron,  and  gum  guaiacum, 
whose  sensibility  to  light  had  been  investigated  by  Wollaston, 
in  1804.  Nothing,  however,  answered  so  well  in  his  hands  as 
the  surface  of  bitumen  or  asj^halt,  witli  which  he  had  already 
been  successful  in  heliography.  When  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  light  forming  the  picture  within  a camera,  the  bitumen 
became  insoluble  in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  light  by 
which  the  various  parts  of  the  image  were  produced,  an  effect 


18 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


wliieli  we  now  know  to  be  due  to  the  oxidation,  and  conse- 
quent hardening  of  this  resinous  substance.  When  the  resin- 
ized  plate  was  removed  from  the  camera,  no  picture  at  all  was 
visible  on  its  surface.  But  by  steeping  the  exposed  plate  in  a 
mixture  of  oil  of  lavender  and  petroleum,  the  still  soluble  por- 
tions of  the  bitumen  were  removed.  The  shadows  of  the 
landscape  were  then  represented  by  bare  portions  of  the  metal 
plate,  while  the  insoluble  resin  which  remained  indicated  the 
brightest  parts,  or  high-lights  ” of  the  original.  Obviously 
such  a picture  would  look  more  natural  if  the  portions  of 
polished  metal  exposed  could  be  darkened,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose we  know  that  JN^iepce  employed  various  chemicals,  and 
among  others  iodine. 

Correspondence  of  Niepce. — It  is  unfortunate  that  Mce- 
phore  Niepce  never  published  a single  line  descriptive  of  his 
methods,  so  that  it  is  only  from  his  correspondence — and  more 
esj^ecially  his  letters  to  his  brother  Claude — that  we  can  glean 
our  information.  The  difficulties  of  an  experimenter  in  an 
obscure  French  town,  seventy  years  ago,  were  indeed  great. 
Niepce  tells  us  that  his  first  camera  was  fashioned  out  of  a cigar 
box,  while  his  lenses  were  “ the  lenses  of  the  solar  microscope, 
which,  as  you  know,  belonged  to  our  grandfather,  Barrault.” 
In  a letter  written  to  his  brother  in  1816,  Niepce  describes  how 
he  secured  what  was  probably  the  first  picture  ever  taken  in  a 
camera : My  object  glass  being  broken,  and  being  no  longer 

able  to  use  my  camera,  I made  an  artificial  eye  with  Isidore’s 
ring  box,  a little  thing  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  lines  square. 
* * * * j placed  this  little  apparatus  in  my  workroom, 

facing  the  open  window  looking  on  to  the  pigeon  house.  I 
made  the  experiment  in  the  way  you  are  acquainted  with,  and 
I saw  on  the  white  paper  the  whole  of  the  pigeon  house  seen 
from  the  window.  * * One  could  distinguish  the 

effects  of  the  solar  rays  in  the  jDicture  from  the  pigeon  house 
up  to  the  window  sash.  The  possibility  of  painting  by  this 
means  appears  almost  clear  to  me.  * * I do  not  hide 

from  myself  that  there  are  great  difficulties,  especially  as  re- 
gards fixing  the  colors,  but  with  work  and  patience  one  can  ac- 
complish inucli.” 

“ Work  !”  and  ‘‘  Patience  !” — truly  N iepce  himself  combined 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


19 


these  in  no  common  degree.  From  the  reference  to  white  paper 
nsed  in  this  early  experiment,  it  would  seem  probable  that  silver 
chloride  was  employed.  We  know  that  ISTiepce  nsed  the  sub- 
stance, and  that  he  gave  it  np,  because,  like  Wedgwood  and 
Davy,  he  was  unable  to  fix  or  render  permanent  the  pictures 
secured  by  its  aid. 

Niepce^ s Agreement  with  Daguerre. — This  agreement  bound 
the  two  investigators  to  communicate  to  each  other  all  the  pro- 
cesses which  they  had  discovered  for  fixing  the  camera-image  ; 
and  it  went  on  to  state  that  the  two  inventors  were  to  share 
equally  in  any  profits  that  might  be  obtained.  In  compliance 
with  this  resolution,  Niepce  drew  up  the  following  important 
statement,  which  is  dated  December  5th,  1829  : “ The  discovery 
which  I have  made,  and  to  which  I give  the  name  of  helio- 
graphy,  consists  in  producing  spontaneously,  by  the  action  of 
light,  with  gradations  of  tints  from  black  to  white,  the  images 
received  by  the  camera  obscura.  Light  acts  chemically  upon 
bodies.  It  is  absorbed  ; it  combines  with  them,  and  communi- 
cates to  them  new  properties.  Thus  it  augments  the  natural 
consistency  of  some  of  these  bodies ; it  solidifies  them  even  ; 
and  renders  them  more  or  less  insoluble,  according  to  the  dura- 
tion or  intensity  of  its  action.  The  substance  which  has  sue 
ceeded  best  with  me  is  asphaltum,  dissolved  in  oil  of  lavender. 
A tablet  of  plated  silver  is  to  be  highly  polished,  on  which  a 
thin  coating  of  the  varnish  is  to  be  applied  with  a light  roll  of 
soft  skin.  The  plate  when  dry  may  be  immediately  submitted 
to  the  action  of  light  in  the  focus  of  the  camera.  But  even 
after  having  been  thus  exposed  a length  of  time  sufficient  for 
receiving  the  impressions  of  external  objects,  nothing  is  ap- 
parent to  show  that  these  impressions  exist.  The  forms  of  the 
future  picture  remain  still  invisible.  The  next  operation  then 
is  to  disengage  the  shrouded  imagery,  and  this  is  accomplished 
by  a solvent,  consisting  of  one  part  by  volume  of  essential  oil 
of  lavender,  and  ten  of  oil  of  white  petroleum.  Into  this 
liquid  the  exposed  tablet  is  plunged,  and  the  operator  observing 
it  by  reflected  light,  begins  to  perceive  the  images  of  the  ob- 
jects to  which  it  had  been  exposed,  gradually  unfolding  their 
forms.  The  plate  is  then  lifted  out,  allowed  to  drain,  and  well 
washed  with  water.”  To  this  Niepce  adds : It  were,  how- 


20 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTRGRAPHY. 


ever,  to  be  desired  that,  by  blackening  the  metal  plate,  we  could 
obtain  all  the  gradations  of  tone  from  black  to  white.  The 
substance  which  I now  employ  for  this  purpose  is  iodine,  which 
possesses  the  property  of  evaporating  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture.” We  cannot  but  admire  the  graphic  description  of  the 
phenomena  of  development  here  given  by  Niepce,  and,  with- 
out doubt,  it  formed  the  foundation  of  all  the  discoveries  in 
photography  that  followed.  It  will  be  noticed  that  Niepce’s 
method  of  development  was  a physical  one  only,  for  it  consisted 
in  simply  washing  away  by  a suitable  solvent,  the  unacted-on 
and  therefore  still  soluble  parts  of  the  bitumen. 

Defects  of  J^iepce^s  Process, — The  chief  objection  to  the 
beautiful  and  ingenious  process  discovered  by  Nicephore 
N iepce  was  the  great  length  of  time  for  which  the  bitumenized 
plate  needed  to  be  exposed  in  the  camera.  For  an  ordinary 
landscape  an  exposure  of  from  six  to  eight  hours  was  required. 
During  this  time  the  shadows  of  olqects  changed  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  so  that  the  resulting  pictures  were  comparatively 
flat  and  spiritless,  being  devoid  of  the  charming  effects  result- 
ing from  the  contrast  of  light  and  shade.  Another  trouble 
arose  from  the  fact  that  in  the  half-tones  of  the  picture  the 
bitumen  was  only  hardened  at  the  surface,  the  layer  beneath 
remaining  soft  and  soluble.  When  the  developing  liquid  was 
apj)lied  this  lower  layer  was  apt  to  be  dissolved,  and  in  the 
final  washing  it  sometimes  carried  away  with  it  the  hardened 
upper  portion,  so  producing  bare  patches  or  defects. 

Experiments  in  Ileliograpliy . — Most  black  varnishes  are 
made  from  asphalt,  and  we  can  easily  imitate  Niepce’s  process 
by  coating  a glass  or  metal  plate  with  a thin  layer  of  such  var- 
nish and  exposing  it  under  a negative  to  bright  sunshine.  By 
subsequent  washing  with  petroleum  the  picture  is  readily  de- 
veloped. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


21 


CHAPTEE  III. 

^ THE  DAGUERREOTYPE  PROCESS. 

Life  of  Daguerre. — Aicopliore  Mepce  was  a man  of  a quiet 
and  retiring  disposition  ; a student  who  was  so  immersed  in  his 
work  and  so  desirous  of  perfecting  it,  that  he  hesitated — while 
as  yet  he  felt  it  to  he  incomplete — to  publish  even  the  smallest 
details  with  regard  to  it. 

But  the  man  with  whom  Aiepce  entered  into  partnership — 
Louis  Jacques  Maude  Daguerre — was  of  a very  opposite  tem- 
perament, bold  and  energetic,  desirous  of  fame  and  its  accom- 
panying rcAvards,  accustomed  to  success  and  to  the  applause  of 
the  public. 

Daguerre  Avas  born  at  Cormeilles,  a village  near  Paris,  in 
1181.  Aeglected  by  his  parents,  his  native  talents  asserted 
themselves,  and  while  still  young  he  became  kiioAvn  as  a scene- 
painter  of  great  power  and  originality  ; AA^hile  the  mechanical 
effects  which  he  introduced  to  add  to  the  realism  of  his  sta^e- 
views  were  the  admiration  of  all  Paris. 

In  1822,  Daguerre  opened  a diorama  in  Paris,  for  Avhich  he 
executed  paintings  on  a colossal  scale  for  such  scenery  as  the 
Village  of  Goldau,”  the  Valley  of  Sarnen,”  etc.  By  paint- 
ing on  both  sides  of  the  cam^as,  and  sliowing  the  picture  lirst 
by  reflected,  and  then  by  transmitted  light,  A^ery  remarkable 
changes  and  effects  could  be  produced. 

In  the  sketches  from  nature  AAdiich  Daguerre  made  as  a pre- 
liminary aid  to  the  execution  of  these  immense  pictures,  he 
frequently  employed  the  camera  obscura ; and  it  was  the  re- 
markable beauty  and  perfection  of  the  images  produced  by 
this  instrument  that  determined  the  artist  to  attempt  the  dis- 
covery of  some  means  by  which  they  could  be  permanently 
retained. 

Without  any  scientific  education  or  training  this  task  would 
have  seemed  to  most  persons  a hopeless  one ; but  perhaps 


22 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Daguerre’s  very  ignorance  of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered 
was  one  cause  of  his  perseverance.  The  date  of  his  first  at- 
tempts appears  to  have  been  about  1824:,  and  during  the  next 
two  or  three  years  we  hear  of  his  paying  frequent  visits  to  the 
shop  of  Chevalier,  a well-known  optician,  of  whom  Daguerre 
purchased  the  camera,  lenses,  and  other  articles  necessary  to 
his  new  pursuit. 

In  1826,  Daguerre  was  informed — probably  by  Chevalier — 
that  a gentleman  at  Chalons  had  already  made  considerable 
progress  toward  the  end  which  he  was  himself  desiring  to  at- 
tain. Letters  addressed  to  Niepce  received,  however,  but  curt 
responses,  and  it  was  not  till  1827,  when  Niepce  passed  through 
Paris  on  his  way  to  England,  that  he  entered  into  cordial  rela- 
tions with  Daguerre.  The  pai-tnership  between  these  two 
workers,  which  was  established  in  1829,  was  continued  after 
the  death  of  the  elder  Nie}3ce,  Isidore  Niepce  taking  the  place 
of  his  father. 

Publication  of  the  DaguevTeotyjpe  Process  in  1839. — Year 
after  year  passed  away  and  left  our  scene-painter  still  toiling 
after  his  ideal — ever  endeavoring  to  fix  the  fleeting  images 
formed  by  the  lens  of  his  camera.  His  ordinarj^  work  is  neg- 
lected, but  he  passes  nine-tenths  of  his  time  in  his  laboratory. 
It  was  at  this  period  that  Madame  Daguerre  sought  advice  as 
to  the  sanity  of  her  husband,  and  was  not,  perhaps,  much  com- 
forted by  the  assurance  of  the  men  of  science  whom  she  con- 
sulted that  the  object  of  her  husband’s  researches  was  “ not 
absolutely  impossible ! ” Five  years  after  the  death  of  Niepce 
his  partner  was  able  to  announce  that  he  had  overcome  all 
difficulties,  and  that  henceforth  nature  would  depict  her  own 
likeness  with  a pencil  of  light.  In  1838,  Daguerre  attempted 
to  form  a company  which  should  acquire  and  work  the  new 
process;  but  the  Parisian  public  were  utterly  incredulous, 
and  the  shares  were  not  taken  up.  In  this  extremity  Daguerre 
showed  his  specimens,  and,  in  confidence,  explained  his  method 
to  the  eminent  French  astronomer  and  physicist,  Arago- 
Arago’s  admiration  and  delight  with  this  new  and  wonderful 
process  by  which  objects  were  made  to  draw  their  own  pictures 
were  unbounded.  As  a man  of  science,  and  of  world-wide 
reputation,  his  endorsement  of  the  value  of  Daguerre’s  dis- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


23 


covery  at  once  establislied  its  worth,  and  on  his  recommenda- 
tion the  French  Government  awarded  to  Daguerre  a life  jien- 
sion  of  6,000  francs,  and  to  Isidore  Niepce  one  of  4,000  francs 
per  annum,  on  the  condition  that  the  invention  should  be  pub- 
lished without  patenting  it ; this  money  being  paid  by  France 
for  the  glory  of  endowing  the  world  of  science  and  of  art 
with  one  of  the  most  surprising  discoveries  that  honor  their 
native  land.”  Notwithstanding  this  official  statement,  a patent 
was  taken  out  by  Daguerre  in  one  country — England — in 
1839. 

Daguerre  is  said  to  have  placed  a written  account  of  his  pro- 
cess in  the  hands  of  Arago  in  January,  1839,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  have  publicly  exhibited  specimens  of  the  results  which 
he  had  up  to  that  time  obtained  ; but  no  details  were  revealed, 
nor  was  the  paper  published  until  the  meeting  of  the  Academy 
in  August  of  that  year.  The  new  process  was  named  Daguer- 
reotype^ and  tlie  excitable  inhabitants  of  the  French  metropolis 
went  into  ecstacies  over  it.  Nevertheless,  the  daguerreotype 
process  was,  at  the  time  of  its  publication,  very  imperfect,  and 
it  was  destined  to  undergo  important  modilications  and  im- 
provements during  the  next  three  or  four  years. 

The  news  of  Daguerre’s  wonderful  discovery  soon  spread  to 
other  countries,  and  the  inventor  obtained  a rich  reward  by 
the  sale  of  apparatus,  and  by  the  iiistructiou  of  hundreds  who 
flocked  to  Paris  to  learn  the  details  of  the  new  art.  A keen 
observer — Sir  John  Pobiuson — wrote  as  follows,  in  1839,  to  a 
friend  in  the  United  States  : Circumstances  led  to  my  being 

included  in  a small  party  of  English  gentlemen  who  were  lately 
invited  to  visit  the  studio  of  M.  Daguerre  to  see  the  results  of 
his  discovery.  I satisfied  myself  that  the  pictures  produced 
by  his  process  have  no  resemblance  of  anything,  as  far  as  I 
know,  that  has  yet  been  produced  in  this  country.  Excepting 
the  absence  of  color,  they  are  perfect  images  as  seen  by  reflec- 
tion from  a highly  polished  surface.  The  subjects  which  I 
saw  were  views  of  streets,  boulevards  and  buildings ; vacillat- 
ing objects  made  indistinct  pictures.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  when  the  daguerreotype  process  is  known  to  the  public  it 
will  be  immediately  applied  to  numberless  useful  processes ; 
and  even  the  fine  arts  will  gain,  for  the  eye,  accustomed  to 


24 


A HISTOKY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  accuracy  of  the  Daguerre  pictures,  will  no  longer  be  satis- 
fied with  bad  drawing,  however  splendidly  it  may  be  colored.” 
Every  word  of  this  prediction  has  since  been  fulfilled. 

Daguerre  died  in  1851,  aged  sixty-three.  In  1883,  a bust 
of  this  ardent  worker  was  unveiled  at  Cormeilles,  funds  for 
its  execution  having  been  contributed  by  photographers  of  all 
civilized  nations.  Viewing  his  whole  career,  Daguerre  must 
be  considered  as  a fortunate  man.*  Vot  only  did  he  reap  much 
honor  and  material  benefit  from  his  discovery,  but  he  lived  to 
see  photography  rise  to  an  important  place  amongst  the  arts 
and  sciences. 

How  Daguerre  was  Led  to  his  Discoveries. — The  materials 
employed  by  Daguerre  in  his  early  experiments — between 
1824  and  1829 — appear  to  have  been  the  same  as  those  used 
by  Wedgwood  and  Davy — the  chloride  and  nitrate  of  silver' 
spread  upon  paper ; and  he  did  not  advance  upon,  if,  indeed, 
he  equaled,  the  results  obtained  by  the  two  English  chemists. 
After  entering  into  partnership  with  Aiepce,  and  learning  the 
details  of  his  bitumen  process,  Daguerre  followed  for  a time 
in  the  same  track ; but  further  study  enabled  him  to  work  out 
improvements  and  modifications  which  led  him  ultimately  to 
a greater  success.  We  know  that  Viepce  sometimes  used 
metal  plates  coated  with  silver ; moreover,  he  employed  iodine 
to  darken  these  plates  after  the  2>icture  had  been  developed. 
Using  these  two  materials — plates  of  silver  and  vapor  of  iodine 
— Daguerre  found  that  the  iodide  of  silver,  formed  by  expos- 
ing silver  to  the  vapor  of  iodine,  was  sensitive  to  light.  When 
such  “iodized  silver  plates”  were  exposed  within  the  camera, 
faint  images  of  l)right  objects  were  impressed  upon  them  in 
the  course  of  two  or  three  hours. 

Development  hy  Mercury  Yapor. — At  this  stage  a happy 
“ accident  ” occurred,  which  revealed  to  Daguerre  a method  by 
which  not  only  was  the  time  of  exposure  necessary  to  secure  a 
good  picture  greatly  reduced,  but  the  distinctness  and  beauty 
of  the  image  was  much  enhanced.  It  appears  that  one  day 
Daguerre  removed  from  his  camera  a plate,  which,  either  from 
the  shortness  of  the  exposure  or  the  dullness  of  the  light,  showed 
no  sign  of  an  image.  He  placed  this  blank  plate  in  a store 
cupboard,  intending  to  clean  tlie  surface  and  use  it  again.  But 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


25 


wliat  must  have  been  our  jDhotograplier’s  sur^^rise  when,  on 
taking  out  this  plate  the  next  morning,  he  found  upon  its  sur- 
face a distinct  and  perfect  picture  ! Another  prepared  plate 
was  quickly  exposed  for  an  equally  short  time  within  the 
camera,  and  again  a sojourn  of  twenty-four  hours  within  the 
magic  cupboard  sufficed  to  bring  out  a picture.  The  next 
step  was  to  ascertain  to  which  of  the  numerous  chemicals  kept 
within  the  cupboard  this  marvelous  effect  was  due.  By  a 
process  of  elimination  it  was  at  last  traced  to  a dish  full  of 
mercury. 

Delighted  by  this  fortunate  discovery,  Daguerre  at  once 
jDi’oceeded  to  place  his  exposed  plates  over  a dish  of  warm 
mercury,  when  the  vapor  proceeding  from  the  liquid  metal 
was  found  to  settle  upon  the  iodized  silver  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  intensity  of  the  light  by  wliicli  each  part  of  the  plate 
had  been  affected.  This  was,  in  fact,  a process  of  “ develop- 
ment,” an  invisible  or  “latent”  image  being  strengthened  and 
thereby  made  visible.  Some  such  method  of  “ dev^eloping  ” 
the  originally  feeble  impressions  produced  upon  sensitive 
plates  by  a short  exposure  to  light  has  been  found  necessary 
in  every  photographic  process. 

Ilow  Daguerreotypes  were  Fixed. — iknother  advance  made 
by  the  French  artist  was  the  discovery  of  a fixing  agent.  This 
was  neither  more  nor  less  than  a strong  solution  of  common 
salt,  in  which  the'  plates  were  soaked  after  development, 
and  which  dissolved  and  washed  away  the  iodide  of  sih 
v^er  that  had  not  been  acted  on  l)y  light.  But  when,  al- 
most immediately  after  the  publication  of  the  daguerreotype 
process  in  1839,  Sir  John  ITerschel  drew  attention  to  the 
superior  qualities  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  as  a solvent  of  the 
silver  salt,  Daguerre  immediately  adopted  it  for  clearing  and 
fixing  his  exposed  ])lates.  AYe  may  mention  that  this  sub- 
stance, so  valuable  to  every  photographer,  was  discovered  by 
Chaussier  in  1799,  and  its  power  of  dissolving  the  haloid  salts 
of  silver  had  been  described  by  Herschel  as  early  as  1819.^ 

Irnyyrovements  in  the  Daguerreotype  Process. — The  first 


* See  paper  on  “ Hyposulphurous  Acid  and  Its  Compounds,”  Edinburgh 
Philosophical Joianial,  vol.  i.,  pp.  8,  396. 


26 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Daguerreotypes  were  so  delicate  that  the  merest  touch  of  the 
finger  was  sufficient  to  mar  their  beauty,  and,  when  exposed 
to  the  air,  they  rapidly  tarnished  and  deteriorated.  This  de- 
fect was  remedied  by  M.  Fizeau,  who  gilded  the  image  by 
means  of  a mixture  of  chloride  of  gold  and  hyposulphite  of 
soda.  This  solution  was  poured  over  the  silver  plate,  which 
was  then  heated  until  the  liquid  evaporated,  leaving  a thin 
coating  of  gold  upon  the  picture,  which  was  thereby  rendered 
more  distinct,  as  well  as  more  permanent. 

Another  great  improvement  was  introduced  by  Mr.  God- 
dard, a London  science  lecturer,  in  1840.  He  exposed  the 
iodized  silver  plate  to  the  action  of  bromine  vapors,  thereby 
forming  a bromide  of  silver  upon  the  plate  in  addition  to 
iodide  of  silver.  In  1841,  M.  Claudet  used  chlorine  vapors  in 
a like  manner.  Plates  prepared  by  either  of  these  methods 
were  found  to  be  far  more  sensitive  to  light  than  those  which 
had  been  simply  iodized.  In  fact,  the  time  required  to  pro- 
duce a picture  in  the  camera  was  thereby  reduced  to  from  one 
to  five  minutes,  or,  with  a very  good  light,  to  less  than  one 
minute. 

As  the  three  elements  referred  to  above  were  only  discov- 
ered, chlorine  in  1774,  iodine  in  1811,  and  bromine  in  1826, 
we  see  that  photography  was  hardly  possible  before  the  present 
century. 

Introduction  of  Portraiture  ~by  Photography . — After  the 
improvements  of  Goddard  and  Claudet,  which  were  quickly 
adopted  by  Daguerre,  the  production  of  portraits  by  the  da- 
guerreotype process  became  comparatively  easy.  In  the  very 
first  attempts  at  portraiture,  which  appear  to  have  been  made 
in  America  by  Draper  and  Morse,  in  1839,  the  sitter’s  face 
was  covered  with  white  powder,  the  eyes  were  closed,  and  the 
exposure,  lasting  for  perhaps  half  an  hour,  was  made  in  bright 
sunshine  ! To  lessen  the  glare  of  light,  which  painfully  affect- 
ed the  sitter.  Draper  caused  the  sunlight  to  pass  through  a 
large  glass  tank  containing  a clear  blue  liquid — ammonia  sul- 
phate of  copper — before  falling  upon  the  sitter,  thus  filtering 
out  most  of  the  heat  rays,  which  could  well  be  spared,  as  they 
possess  little  or  no  actinic  value.  In  1840,  Beard  and  Claudet 
opened  photographic  studios  in  London  ; Davidson  followed 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


27 


suit  in  Edinburgh,  and  Shaw  in  Birmingham,  and  soon 
daguerreotypy  became  a trade.  For  landscapes,  etc.,  the 
daguerreotype  process  was  but  seldom  employed,  though  w^e 
read  of  a line  instantaneous  picture  of  New  York  Harbor 
being  secured  by  its  aid.* 

Defects  of  the  Daguerreotype  Process. — The  expense  of  the 
plates,  which  were  usually  of  copper  plated  with  silver,  w^as  a 
serious  objection  to  the  daguerreotype  process.  As  late  as 
1854  we  find  the  price  of  daguerreotypes  in  England  was  two 
and  a half  guineas  each  for  the  quarter-plate  size  (4J  x 3J), 
and  four  guineas  each  for  half-plate  size.  The  cleansing  and 
polishing  of  the  silver  surface  on  which  the  picture  was  to  be 
produced,  was  a most  troublesome  task,  necessitating  great  care 
and  a vast  amount  of  labor  in  the  production  of  the  “ black 
polish”  which  was  necessary.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  there  was  practically  no  power  of  multiplying  a daguerre- 
otype— a fact  due  to  the  opacity  of  the  silver  plate.  It  is  true 
that  Grove  (now  Sir  W.  E.  Grove,  one  of  Her  Majesty’s  Jus- 
tices) devised  a method  of  etching  daguerreotypes  with  acid, 
so  that  they  could  be  used  in  a printing  press ; but,  practically, 
this  method  was  a failure. 

The  daguerreotype  held  sway  for  about  ten  years  only,  from 
1839  to  1851.  It  was  more  popular  in  Americaf  than  in  Eng- 
land ; indeed,  in  the  latter  country,  specimens  of  the  art  are 
now  quite  rare.  With  all  its  faults  it  was  an  immense  advance 
on  anything  previously  known,  and  entitles  Daguerre  to  rank 
with  the  leading  inventors  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


* The  original  is  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  J.  Werge,  of  Berners  Street, 
London,  to  whom  I am  indebted  for  a copy. 

f For  an  admirable  description  of  the  faults  and  merits  of  a daguerreo- 
type portrait,  see  Hawthorne’s  “ House  of  the  Seven  Gables,”  chap.  vi. 


28 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

FOX-TALBOT  AND  THE  CALOTYPE  PROCESS. 

Life  of  Fox-Talbot. — While  Daguerre  was  pursuing  his  re- 
searches into  matters  photographic,  in  France,  another  worker 
was  advancing  toward  the  same  goal  in  England,  though  by  a 
different  road. 

Henry  Eox-Talbot,  born  February,,  1800,  was  of  high  line- 
age ; the  Talbots  taking  rank  among  the  oldest  families  in 
England;  while  his  mother — Lady  Elizabeth  Eox-Strang ways 
— was  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ilchester. 

The  future  discoverer  of  photography  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge witli  high  honors,  in  1821.  He  sat  for  two  years  in 
Parliament,  but  politics  had  no  charms  for  him,  and  in  1834 
he  retired  from  public  life  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  scien- 
tific research. 

Talbot  was  a very  versatile  student  of  nature.  His  earliest 
work  was  mathematical ; but  between  1826  and  1834  he  pub- 
lished five  papers  upon  various  phenomena  connected  with 
light.  Then  for  many  years  photography  engrossed  his 
thoughts  ; but  in  after  life  he  studied  and  wrote  on  “ Spec- 
trum Analysis,”  the  “ Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Egypt,”  etc. 
Altogether  fifty  papers  from  his  pen  appeared  in  various  sci- 
entific periodicals  between  1822  and  1872. 

Fox-Talbot  died  at  his  family  seat,  Lacock  Abbey,  in  Wilt- 
shire, on  the  iTth  of  September,  1877,  full  of  years  and  honor. 
As  a discoverer  of  photographic  processes,  he  may  fairly  claim 
to  be  placed  on  an  equality  with  Hiepce  and  Daguerre. 

Talbofs  Early  Work  in  Photography. — Talbot  tells  us  that 
it  was  in  1833,  while  sketching  the  beautiful  scenery  of  the 
Italian  lakes  with  the  aid  of  a camera  obscura,  that  he  was 
struck  with  the  idea  that  it  might  be  possible  to  fix,  and  retain 
permanently,  tlie  exquisite  fac-siniiles  of  surrounding  objects 
produced  l)y  the  aid  of  that  instrument. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


29 


Six  years  of  steady  work  at  tlie  problem  followed,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  publication  of  Talbot’s  process — for  he  succeeded 
in  devising  a means  by  which  his  object  was  attained — was 
hastened  by  the  news  that  a Frenchman  had  also  achieved  suc- 
cess in  fixing  the  camera-image. 

It  was  on  the  25th  of  January,  1839,  that  Professor  Faraday 
described  the  new  method  of  “ Photogenic  Drawing”  (for  so 
Talbot  styled  his  invention)  to  the  members  of  the  Poyal  Insti- 
tution— then,  as  now,  a very  popular  London  scientific  club — 
and  invited  them  to  inspect  a collection  of  drawings  produced 
solely  by  the  aid  of  light.  On  the  31st  of  the  same  month,  a 
paper  giving  a full  description  of  the  method  was  read  by  Tal- 
bot before  the  Eoyal  Society ; this  paper  was  shortly  after- 
wards published  in  the  P hilosojjhical  Magazine,  Thus  the 
publication  of  Talbot’s  j^rocess  was  made  before  that  of  Da- 
guerre. 

But  when  the  two  methods  came  to  be  compared  it  was 
found  that  they  were  essentially  different.  Talbot  had  fol- 
lowed up  in  his  photographs  on  paper,  the  line  of  research  in- 
dicated by  Wedgwood  ; while  Daguerre’s  method  with  polished 
silver  plates  was  built  upon  the  foundation  furnished  by  Eiep- 
ce  ; thus  each  had  coni23leted  the  work  of  his  own  country- 
man. 

The  Method  of  Photogenic  Draioing. — Talbot’s  success  was 
due,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  fact  that  he  had  succeeded  in  ' 
rendering  chloride  of  silver  far  more  sensitive  to  light  than 
Wedgwood  or  Davy  had  been  able  to  do.  Taking  fine  writing- 
paper,  he  soaked  it  in  a weak  solution  of  common  salt,  and 
then  brushed  one  side  of  the  paper  twice  over  with  a solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver.  When  this  was  done,  what  chemists  call 
“ double  decomposition”  took  place,  and  chloride  of  silver  was 
formed  in  the  pores  and  upon  the  surface  of  the  paper ; while 
mingled  with  the  chloride  there  was  also  a slight  excess  of  the 
nitrate  of  silver.  It  was  to  this  use  in  combination  of  the  two 
salts  of  silver — the  nitrate  being  in  excess — that  tlie  increased 
sensitiveness  to  light  which  paper  so  prepared  was  found  to 
possess  was  due.  Talbot  found  that  paper  treated  in  this  way 
was  darkened  by  even  a momentary  exposure  to  bright  sun- 
light. By  its  aid  he  readily  secured  images  of  objects  in  the 


30 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


solar  microscope.  Bnt  his  crowning  triumph  was  attained 
when,  after  an  exposure  of  about  an  hour,  he  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining an  impression  of  the  picture  formed  by  the  lens  within 
the  camera  obscura.  Talbot  states  that  he  had  reached  this 
point  in  1835,  and  that  in  that  year  he  secured  several  camera 
pictures  of  his  residence,  Lacock  Abbey. 

How  Talbot  Fixed  his  Pictures, — It  will  be  remembered 
that  it  was  the  want  of  a fixing  agent  which  batfied  Sir  Hum- 
phy  Davy  in  1802.  But  Talbot  was  more  fortunate.  After 
well  washing  his  photographs  he  soaked  them  either  in  a solu- 
tion of  common  salt,  or  in  a solution  of  potassium  iodide  or 
bromide.  By  this  treatment  he  found  that  his  pictures  were 
rendered  ]Dermanent ; at  least  they  could  be  freely  examined 
in  the  daylight  without  further  darkening. 

The  Calotype  or  Talbotype  Process. — -Tox-Talbot  did  not 
rest  content  with  his  early  successes.  After  the  publication  of 
Daguefre’s  paper,  in  1839,  he  tried  the  iodide  of  silver  instead 
of  the  chloride ; and  above  all  he  succeeded  in  discovering  a 
method  of  development  by  which  the  time  of  exposure  necessary 
to  secure  a picture  was  very  greatly  reduced.  In  Talbot’s  early 
experiments  the  sensitive  paper  had  to  remain  at  the  back  of 
the  camera  until  the  image  was  printed-out  upon  it  by  the  ac- 
tion of  light ; and  for  this  a good  light  and  a long  period  of 
time  were  necessary.  But  in  September,  1840,  Talbot  states 
he  discovered  that  if  the  sensitive  paper  be  brushed  over  with 
a mixture  of  gallic  acid  and  nitrate  of  silver,  and  be  then 
exposed,  while  still  wet,  within  the  camera,  the  time  necessary 
to  secure  a picture  is  only  two  or  three  minutes.  He  also 
found  that  the  paper  might  be  dried  and  exposed  in  that  state, 
the  image  being  subsequently  brought  out  or  “ developed  ” by 
brushing  over  it  more  of  the  gallo-nitrate  of  silver  ” solution. 

Reade  Independently  Discovers  Develoyyment  by  Gallic 
Acid. — It  is  tolerably  certain  that  in  the  system  of  develop- 
ment described  in  the  last  paragraph,  Talbot  had  been  antici- 
pated by  a few  montlis  by  the  Bev.  J.  B.  Reade,  a well-known 
English  clergyman.  We  have  seen  that  Wedgwood  had  no- 
ticed, some  forty  or  fifty  years  before  the  time  of  which  we 
are  now  speaking,  that  copies  by  light  were  produced  most  rap- 
idly when  leather  was  used  as  a support  for  the  salts  of  silver. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


31 


Reade  also  found  this  to  be  the  case,  and  as  his  inroads  upon 
his  wife’s  stock  of  white  kid  gloves  were  not  unnaturally  ob- 
jected to  by  that  lady,  he  was  led  to  the  discovery  that  the  in- 
creased sensitiveness  to  light  was  due  to  the  solution  of  nut- 
galls  with  which  leather  is  impregnated  during  the  operation 
of  tanning.  Finally,  he  secured  in  what  may  be  termed  the 
essence  of  the  galls — gallic  acid — a substance  capable  of 
strengthening  or  developing  the  invisible  photographic,  or, 
as  it  was  then  termed,  the  latent  image,  which  is  formed,  after 
even  a very  short  exposure,  upon  the  surface  of  the  sensitive 
paper  within  the  camera. 

Talbot  Patents  the  Calotype  Process. — Talbot  patented  his 
calotype  (beautiful  picture)  process  in  February,  181:1.  It  is 
the  third  British  patent  for  photography,  the  two  previous 
ones  being  for  the  daguerreotype  process.  The  calotype  pro- 
cess was  also  frequently  called  Talbotype,  in  honor  of  the  dis- 
coverer. The  patent  was  afterwards  disputed  in  the  law  courts 
on  the  ground  of  its  ‘‘  previous  discovery”  by  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Reade ; but  it  was  upheld  by  the  judge  mainly  for  the  reason 
that  Reade  did  not  propeidy  publish  or  make  known  his  dis- 
covery. 

Outline  of  the  Calotype  Process. — The  paper  was  carefully 
selected,  of  a close,  even  texture  and  fine  surface.  A solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  (100  grains  to  six  ounces  of  water)  was 
brushed  over  one  side  of  the  paper  and  allowed  to  dry.  It 
was  then  dipped  into  a solution  of  potassium  iodide  (500  grains 
to  one  pint  of  water),  where  it  was  left  for  two  or  three  min- 
utes. During  this  time  the  iodine  combined  with  the  silver 
to  form  iodide  of  silver.  Lastly,  the  paper  was  rinsed  in  pure 
water  and  dried,  when  it  was  seen  to  be  covered  with  a pale 
yellow  coating  of  iodide  of  silver,  which  in  that  condition  was 
practically  unacted  upon  by  light. 

When  it  was  desired  to  use  this  calotype  paper,  it  was  taken 
into  the  dark-room  and  brushed  over  with  gallo-nitrate  of 
silver,”  made  by  mixing  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (50 
grains  to  the  ounce)  with  one-sixth  its  volume  of  strong  acetic 
acid,  and  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  a saturated  solution  of 
gallic  acid.  The  paper  so  prepared  might  be  used  wet,  or  it 
might  be  dried  and  kept  for  use  at  some  future  time.  In 


32 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


either  case  the  picture  conld  be  subsequently  brought  out  by 
brushing  more  gallo-nitrate  of  silver  over  the  exposed  sur- 
face ; though,  if  the  paper  was  exposed  while  still  wet,  this 
was  not  absolutely  necessary.  Finally,  the  picture  was  fixed 
by  well  washing  first  in  water,  then  in  a solution  of  potassium 
bromide  or  some  other  soluble  bromide,  and  then  in  water 
again. 

In  a patent  taken  out  in  1843,  Talbot  claimed  the  use  of  a 
hot  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  (or  any  other  soluble 
hyposulphite),”  to  give  increased  whiteness  to  calotype  and 
other  photographic  pictures,  and  at  the  same  time  make  them 
more  permanent ; but  this  claim  was  quite  indefensible,  since 
Sir  John  Herschel  had  announced  the  power  of  this  substance 
to  dissolve  the  salts  of  silver  as  early  as  1819,  and  had  again 
called  attention  to  its  value  for  this  purpose  in  1840* 

Photographic  Negatives  and  Positives, — Niepce  found 
that  in  the  pictures  obtained  on  his  resinized  plates,  the  lights 
and  shades  were  just  the  reverse  of  those  of  nature ; the 
whitest  parts  of  the  original  objects  being  represented  by  the 
dark  surface  of  the  insoluble  parts  of  the  bitumen,  while  the 
shadows  were  indicated  by  the  bared  surface  of  the  metal  plate. 
In  the  same  way  Talbot  found  that  the  brightest  parts  of  any 
landscape  were  represented  by  black  patches  of  reduced  silver 
uj)on  his  sensitive  paper,  while  those  parts  of  the  paper  upon 
which  little  light  fell  (the  dark  shadows,  etc.,  of  the  landscape) 
remained  white.  Thus  the  developed  image  upon  a sheet  of 
calotype  paper  was  the  exact  reverse,  as  far  as  light  and  shade 
were  concerned,  of  the  objects  depicted.  To  such  a picture 
Sir  John  Herschel,  in  1841,  applied  the  name  of  “negative.” 
But  paper  is  a semi-transparent  substance,  and  by  oiling  or 
waxing  it  its  transparency  can  be  greatly  increased.  This 
fact,  combined  with  the  reversed  nature  of  the  original,  en- 
abled Talbot  to  obtain  true  copies  of  any  negative  by  placing 
a piece  of  sensitive  paper  underneath  the  negative,  and  then 
exposing  it  to  sunlight.  The  rays  of  light  passing  through 
the  clear  or  transparent  parts  of  the  negative,  blackened  the 
paper  beneath.  After  a sufficient  time  had  elapsed  the  lower 
sheet  of  paper  was  removed,  and  it  was  then  found  to  present 
a correct  picture  in  black  and  white  of  the  original  objects. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


33 


To  such  a copy  Herscliel  applied  the  name  of  ^‘  positive.”  It 
is  obvious  that  in  this  way  auy  iiumher  of  positives  could  be  ob- 
tained from  a single  negative,  and  in  this  respect  the  calotype 
process  had  a great  advantage  over  the  daguerreotype. 

Publication  of  the  ^''Pencil  of  NatureP — In  1843,  Fox- 
Talbot  visited  Paris,  lecturing  on  his  calotype  process  to  large 
audiences,  and  instructing  the  Parisian  photographers  in  liis 
method.  To  make  generally  known  its  capabilities,  he  began, 
in  1814,  the  issue  of  ‘‘  The  Pencil  of  Nature,”  a book  which 
appeared  in  six  parts,  containing  twenty-four  calotyjie  plates, 
between  1844  and  1846  ; it  is  a handsome  quarto,  and  was 
sold  for  three  guineas.  This  book  is  now  very  scarce,  but  in 
all  the  various  copies  which  I have  examined  the  pictures  are 
moi'e  or  less  faded,  the  fading  extending  gradually  from  the 
edges  to  the  center.  The  fact  is  that  the  necessity  for  a very 
tliorough  washing  of  each  print  to  free  it  from  hyposulphite 
of  soda  was  not  fully  recognized  in  those  early  days  of  the 
art. 

Later  Work  of  Fox-Talhot.  — After  the  introduction  of 
Archer’s  collodion  process,  in  1851,  Talbot  devused  a modifica- 
tion of  it  by  whicli  he  obtained  instantaneous  pictures,  as 
those  are  called  which  receive  an  exposure  of  a fraction  of  a 
second  only.  Perhaps  the  experiment  which  he  performed  in 
the  lecture  room  of  the  Poyal  Institution  in  proof  of  his  suc- 
cess has  never  been  surpassed.  Fastening  a page  of  the  Times 
newspaper  to  the  edge  of  a revolving  wheel,  a clear  photograph 
of  every  letter  was  obtained  by  the  aid  of  the  electric  dis- 
charge of  a battery  of  Leyden  jars.  Now  it  is  known  that  the 
brilliant  spark  of  light  produced  by  such  a discharge  does  not 
continue  for  more  than  the  ten-thousandth  jiart  of  a second. 
This  ‘instantaneous  process”  was,  howev^er,  complicated  and 
difficult,  and  only  its  inventor  was  successful  with  it. 

In  1852,  Talbot  invented  a process  of  engraving  on  steel 
plates  by  the  action  of  light  upon  a surface  composed  of  gela- 
tine and  bichromate  of  potash,  to  wliicli  he  gave  the  name  of 
])hoto-glyphy.  About  1854  he  introduced  albumen  to  give  a 
gloss  to  the  surface  of  the  pajier  on  which  photographs  are 
printed. 

Defects  of  the  Calotype  Process. — It  is  liardly  possible  to 


34 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


overrate  the  difficulties  which  photographers  had  to  contend 
with  half  a century  ago.  Many  of  these  difficulties  were  ex- 
traneous to  their  art.  Thus  hyposulphite  of  soda  was,  in  1840, 
a chemical  curiosity,  and  for  years  afterward  its  price  was  six 
shillings  per  pound  ; pure  chemicals,  too,  were  hardly  to  be 
obtained,  so  that  the  worker  was  often  forced  to  manufacture 
his  own  materials. 

Tlie  calotypists  were  especially  at  the  mercy  of  the  paper- 
makers.  Canson,  in  France,  and  Turner,  Hollingworth,  and 
others,  in  England,  made  good  paper,  but  still  the  grain  was 
perceptible,  and  it  was  frequently  uneven,  knotty,  and  speckled 
with  particles  of  metal  from  tlie  machinery  of  the  paper  mills. 
Then  it  was  difficult  to  get  the  paper  to  lie  flat  in  the  dark- 
slide,  and  its  comparative  opacity  made  the  negatives  print 
slowly.  To  remedy  the  latter  defects,  the  French  experiment- 
ers, Le  Gray  and  Blanquart-Evrard,  introduced,  about  1850, 
the  method  of  waxing  the  paper  by  dipping  it  in  melted  wax 
and  then  ironing  it  between  sheets  of  blotting-paper.  This 
made  the  paper  more  even  in  texture  and  very  translucent.  It 
was  then  sensitized,  exposed,  and  developed  in  the  usual  way. 

Light  for  the  Darh-Room. — From  the  moment  that  the 
silvered  plate  of  Daguerre,  or  the  sheet  of  paper  used  by  Tal- 
bot, was  fully  sensitized,  it  became  impossible  to  expose  it  to 
ordinary  light.  The  only  white  light  allowed  to  fall  upon  the 
sensitive  surface  must  be  that  which  passes  through  the  lens 
of  the  camera,  and  by  that  light  the  image  is  imprinted  on  the 
film  containing  the  silver  salt.  But  it  is  imjiossible,  or  at  all 
events  most  inconvenient,  to  go  through  the  operations  of  sen- 
sitizing and  developing  the  plates  in  utter  darkness.  Here  the 
fact  discovered  by  Scheele,  in  1777,  comes  to  our  aid.  He 
found  that  red  light  produced  no  chemical  effect  upon  the 
chloride  of  silver ; and,  speaking  of  the  ordinary  salts  of  silver 
employed  in  photography — tlie  chloride,  the  iodide,  and  the 
bromide — it  may  be  said  that  they  are  unaffected  by  pure  red 
light.  Even  yellow  light  has  little  or  no  effect  upon  these 
substances  if  they  are  contained  in  collodion ; but  when  bro- 
mide of  silver  in  gelatine  is  tested  in  the  same  way,  a few 
minutes’  exposure  to  strong  yellow  light  will  be  found  to  pro- 
duce a change.  Capt.  Abney,  however,  has  recently  prepared 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


35 


bromide  of  silver  in  sncli  a molecular  condition  that  it  is  strong- 
ly affected  even  by  the  red  rays.  Speaking  generally,  how- 
ever, we  may  say  that  no  harm  is  done  to  the  sensitive  surfaces 
ordinarily  used  by  the  photographer  by  a few  minutes’  expos- 
ure to  red,  or  even  orange  light,  and  this  space  of  time  is 
sufficient  to  enable  him  to  perform  the  various  operations 
which  are  necessary.  I have  elsewhere  recommended  the  use 
of  covers  of  red  card-board  for  all  the  flat  dishes  in  which  sen- 
sitive plates  or  paper  are  manipulated ; and  by  using  trays 
fitted  with  lids  of  ruby  glass,  it  is  quite  possible  to  develop 
plates  in  any  ordinarily  lighted  room.  Thus  the  photographer’s 
dark-room  ” would  be  more  properly  called  the  “ red-room,” 
for  its  windows  are  usually  glazed  with  ruby  glass,  and  its  gas- 
jets  and  lamps  fitted  with  ruby  globes. 

In  1844,  Claudet  actually  took  out  a patent  for  the  use 
of  red  light  in  photographers’  dark-rooms  ; but  he  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  attempted  to  enforce  it.  During  the  collodion 
epoch  (1851-80),  yellow  light  was  generally  employed  to  de- 
velop by.  For  our  gelatine  dry-plates,  either  an  orange  or  a 
ruby-colored  light  is  preferable. 

Contrast  hetioeen  Daguerreotype  and  Talbotype. — For  ten 
or  twelve  years  after  the  publication  of  the  discoveries  of  Da- 
guerre and  Talbot,  their  processes — so  distinct  in  method,  al- 
though aiming  at  a like  result — held  joint  sway  over  the  little 
world  of  photography.  By  professional  portraitists  the  Da- 
guerreotype ])rocess  was  preferred,  owing  no  doubt  to  the  clear 
sharp  pictures  and  beautiful  detail  which  could  be  secured 
thereby  ; in  part,  also,  their  preference  may  have  been  due  to 
the  high  prices  which  were  cheerfully  paid  for  pictures  on 
“ plates  of  silver.”  Amateurs,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  em- 
ployed the  Talbotype  process ; it  was  less  expensive,  less 
cumbrous,  and  permitted  of  the  multiplication  of  the  results 
obtained — for  one  good  negative  would  furnish  a large  number 
of  positive  copies. 

Ilersohel  Introduces  Glass  Plates. — Photography  is  in- 
debted to  Sir  John  Herschel  for  many  great  improvements. 
The  “famous  son  of  a famous  father,”  he  was  born  in  1792, 
and  was  therefore  in  the  zenith  of  his  powers  at  the  time  of 
Daguerre’s  discovery  (1839).  He  immediately  suggested  the 


36 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY^ 


Hse  of  glass  plates  as  a support  for  the  sensitive  salts  of  silver ; 
recognizing  in  the  transparency,  rigidity,  and  cheapness  of  glass, 
together  with  its  indifference  to  the  chemicals  employed,  pro- 
perties of  the  highest  value  in  photography. 

Herschel’s  plan  was  to  place  his  glass  plates  at  the  bottom  of 
a vessel  containing  finely  divided  silver  chloride  in  water.  The 
white  silver  salt  was  slowly  deposited,  in  a uniform  film,  upon 
the  upper  surface  of  the  glass.  The  water  was  then  syphoned 
ofi,  and  the  plate  dried  and  exposed  to  the  camera.  The  images 
obtained  in  this  way  were,  however,  very  faint,  and  although 
some  success  attended  Herschel’s  attempts  to  intensify  them  by 
electro  deposition,  still  good  prints  could  not  be  obtained.  At 
that  time  it  was  not  known  that  silver  chloride  is  unaffected  by 
light,  unless  there  be  some  substance  mixed  with  it  which  is 
capable  of  attracting  and  combining  with  the  chlorine  which  is 
liberated,  under  such  conditions,  by  the  action  of  light. 

The  Albumen  Process  on  Glass. — Niepce  de  St.  Yictor,  born 
1805,  died  1870,  nephew  of  Niepce,  improved  on  Ilerschel’s 
plan  by  recognizing  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to  coat  the  glass 
plates  emplojed  in  photography  with  a film  of  some  suitable 
substance,  in  and  on  which  the  particles  to  be  affected  by  light 
may  rest.  For  this  purpose  he  employed  albumen,  beating  up 
white  of  egg  with  potassium  iodide  (20  grains  per  egg),  potas- 
sium bromide  (four  grains),  and  common  salt  (two  grains).  The 
clear  liquid  so  obtained  was  poured  upon  the  glass  plate,  dried, 
and  heated  until  the  albumen  hardened  and  became  insoluble. 
It  was  then  dipped  into  a bath  of  silver  nitrate,  where  a chemi- 
cal change  took  place,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  iodide  and 
bromide  of  silver  within  the  pores  of  the  albumen.  The  plate 
thus  sensitized  could  either  be  exposed  while  wet,  in  the  camera, 
or  it  might  be  rinsed,  dried,  and  kept  in  a dark  place  till 
wanted.  Development  was  effected  by  brushing  a solution  of 
gallic  acid  over  the  album enized  plate.  This  process  was  pub- 
lished in  1848,  and  improvements  in  it  were  quickly  effected 
by  two  other  French  investigators — Blanquart-Evrard  and  Le 
Gray. 

Tliis  albumen  process  was  a considerable  advance.  The 
transparency  of  the  glass  permitted  the  production  of  positive 
prints  at  a rapid  rate  ; wliile  the  clear  and  delicate  film  of  albu- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


37 


men  furnished  a capital  medium  for  holding  the  molecules  of 
the  sensitive  silver  salts,  and  securing  their  adhesion  to,  and 
equal  distribution  over,  the  surface  of  the  plate.  It  is  a mis- 
take, however,  to  suppose  that  such  substances  as  albumen,  col- 
lodion, and  gelatine,  are  nothing  more  than  vehicles  in  which 
the  sensitive  molecules  are  contained.  They  each  exercise  an  in- 
fluence— differing  in  degree — upon  the  silver  salt  imbedded  in 
them,  by  which  the  decomposing  action  of  light  is  facilitated. 
In  Great  Britain  the  albumen  process  was  practiced  successfully 
about  1850,  by  Messrs.  Boss  and  Thomson,  of  Edinburgh, 
wBose  pictures  of  architectural  subjects  on  plates  fifteen  inches 
square  were  greatly  admired.  Many  travelers  also  used  dry- 
plates  prepared  on  this  system.  Its  chief  drawback  was  the 
length  of  exposure  necessary — from  flve  to  twenty  minutes 
under  ordinary  conditions. 


38 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  y. 

SCOTT-ARCHER  AND  THE  COLLODION  PROCESS. 

Discovery  of  Gun-Cotton. — Sdionbein,  the  famous  Swiss 
chemist,  discovered,  in  1846,  that  when  ordinary  cotton  is  soaked 
in  a mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  its  properties  become 
greatly  changed.  The  explosive  substance  so  obtained  received 
the  name  of  gun-cotton,  or  insoluble  pyroxyline.  When  the 
acids  were  slightly  dilute,  or  when  the  time  of  soaking  was 
very  short,  a less  dangerous  compound  was  obtained,  which  was 
known  as  soluble  pyroxyline. 

Preparation  of  Collodion. — In  the  next  year — 1847 — an 
American  investigator  named  Maynard  (of  Boston),  showed 
that  when  soluble  pyroxyline  was  dissolved  in  a mixture  of 
ether  and  alcohol,  a somewhat  viscid  liquid  was  produced,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  collodion.  When  this  collodion  was 
poured  out  upon  a level  surface,  as  that  of  a sheet  of  glass,  the 
ether  quickly  evaporated  and  a delicate  skin  or  film  was  left 
behind.  When  dry  this  film  was  fairly  tough  and  horny.  Col- 
lodion formed  so  admirable  a covering  for  bruises,  etc.,  pre- 
venting the  access  of  air,  that  it  speedily  became  of  use  in 
surgery. 

Collodion  Introduced  into  Photography . — In  1849,  a French- 
man, Gustave  Le  Gray,  suggested  that  collodion  might  prove 
useful  in  photography.  In  his  book — which  was  translated  in- 
to English  in  1850 — he  writes,  “I  have  just  discovered  a pro- 
cess upon  glass  by  hydrofiuoric  ether,  the  fiuoride  of  potassium 
and  soda  dissolved  in  alcohol  40  degs.  Fahr.,  mixed  with  sul- 
phuric ether,  and  afterwards  saturated  with  collodion ; I after- 
wards react  with  nitrate  of  silver,  and  thus  obtain  proofs  in  the 
camera  in  five  seconds  in  the  shade.  I develop  the  image  with 
a very  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  fix  with  hyposul- 
phite of  soda.” 

Another  early  investigator  in  this  line  was  Robert  J.  Bing- 


A HISTOKY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


39 


ham,  who,  as  assistant  to  the  great  Faraday,  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  collodion  immediately  on  its  introduction  into  England 
in  1847.  In  a hook  published  in  1850,  he  gives,  first  Ilerschel’s 
method ; then  a merhod  with  albumen,  then  one  for  coating 
glass  plates  with  isinglass,  and  finally  adds,  we  may,  in  place 
of  the  gelatine  (isinglass)  employ  a number  of  other  substances 
to  form  an  adherent  film  upon  the  glass.  The  following  are  a 
few  of  those  we  have  experimented  with  and  found  to  answer 
moderately  well — gluten,  collodion,  varnishes,  etc.”  But  al- 
though Le  Gray  and  Bingham  may  take  the  credit  for  having 
been  the  first  to  suggest  a possible  use  of  collodion  in  photog- 
raphy, yet  the  merit  of  the  invention  and  publication  of  the 
collodion  process  proper  belongs  entirely  to  Frederick  Scott- 
Archer ; his  article  describing  this  method  first  appearing  in  a 
London  periodical  called  The  Chemist^  in  March,  1851. 

Life  of  Scott-Archer. — Born  at  Bishop  Stortford,  in  1813, 
Archer  was  ap^prenticed  to  a silversmith  in  Leadenhall  Street, 
London.  His  tastes  were  artistic,  and  on  attaining  manhood 
he  became  a sculptor.  It  is  said  that  his  early  attempts  at 
photography,  by  the  calotype  method,  about  1847,  were  stimu- 
lated by  his  desire  to  employ  the  art  to  secure  mementos  of  the 
productions  of  his  chisel.  In  September,  1850,  Archer’s  new 
process  was  so  far  advanced  that  he  communicated  it  to  his 
friends,  among  whom  were  Dr.  H.  W.  Diamond,  Mr.  P.  lY. 
Fry,  and  others,  from  whom  he  received  much  assistance. 
Probably  Archer  did  not  realize  the  importance  of  bis  dis- 
covery. for  he  did  not  attempt  to  patent  it ; although  in  1855 
he  patented  a method  of  removing  the  collodion  film  from 
glass  by  coating  it  with  gutta-percha,  an  improvement  which 
had  little  or  no  p)ractical  value. 

So  good  and  complete  was  Archer’s  metliod  that  in  three  or 
four  years  it  practically  displaced  both  calotype  and  daguerreo- 
type, and  reigned  supreme  from  1855  to  1880.  The  inventor 
took  up  photography  professionally,  opening  a studio  in  Great 
Bussell  Street,  near  the  British  Museum ; but  he  made  no 
money  by  photography,  for  his  brain  was  too  busy  in  imagin- 
ing new  things  to  reap  the  benefit  of  tliat  which  he  had  already 
accomplished.  Among  other  inventions  devised  by  Archer, 
we  may  name  a camera,  within  whicli  the  plates  could  be  de- 


40 


A HISTORY  OF  FHOTOOKAPHY. 


veloped  and  fixed,  as  well  as  exposed ; a triplet  lens ; and  a 
useful  method  of  whitening  positives  on  glass  by  soaking  them 
in  mercury  bichloride.  This  was  called  the  alabastrine 
process.” 

Scott- Archer  died  in  May,  1857,  and  was  buried  in  the 
London  suburban  cemetery  called  Kensal  Green.  A subscrip- 
tion of  £747  was  raised  for  his  widow  and  little  children,  but, 
Mrs.  Archer  dying  shortly  afterwards,  the  amount  was  settled 
on  the  children,  together  with  a government  pension  of  i50 
per  annum,  awarded  on  the  ground  that  their  father  was  ‘‘/the 
discoverer  of  a scientific  process  of  great  value  to  the  nation, 
from  which  the  inventor  had  reaped  little  or  no  benefit.”  / 

Outline  of  the  Collodion  Process. — The  following  account 
is  taken  from  a small  book — “ Manual  of  the  Collodion  Photo- 
graphic Process  ” — published  by  Archer  in  1852 ; a second 
edition  appeared  in  1854.  | 

1.  Immerse  eightj^  grains  of  cotton- wool  in  a mixture  of  one 

ounce  each  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  ; take  out  after  ifteeii 
seconds,  and  wash  thoroughly  in  running  water.  { 

2.  Dissolve  the  pyroxyline  so  obtained  in  a mixture  of /equal 

parts  of  sulphuric  ether  and  absolute  alcohol.  The  solutfon  so 
obtained  is  ordinary  collodion.  | 

3.  Add  some  soluble  iodide — usually  iodide  of  potassium — 

to  the  collodion.  A little  potassium  bromide  may  a}so  be 
added.  i 

4.  Pour  the  iodized  collodion  on  a perfectly  clean;  glass 
plate,  and  allow  two  or  three  minutes  for  the  film  to  set. 

5.  Take  the  coated  plate  into  the  dark-room  and  immerse  it 
in  a batli  of  silver  nitrate  (30  grains  to  every  ounce  of  water) 
for  about  a minute.  Here  a chemical  change  takes  place  by 
which  silver  iodide  is  formed  in  the  jDores  of  the  collodion. 

0.  Remove  the  plate,  which  is  now  sensitive  to  white  light, 
place  it  in  a slide-holder,  and  expose  it  in  the  camera.  The 
time  of  exposure  “ may  vary  from  one  moment  to  a quarter  of 
an  hour.” 

7.  Take  the  plate  back  to  the  dark-room  and  develojD  it  by 
pouring  on  it  a mixture  of  water,  one  ounce ; acetic  acid,  one 
dram  ; pyrogallic  acid,  three  grains.  Archer  claims  that  “ the 
gj-eat  power  shown  by  ]\yrogallic  acid  in  bringing  out  the 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


4i 


latent  image  was  first  made  known  bj  me  in  a short  descrip- 
tion in  the  May  number  of  The  Chemist  for  1850.” 

8.  Fix  the  image  by  soaking  the  plate  “in  a strong  solution 
of  hyposulphite  of  soda.”  At  a later  period  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium was  preferred  by  most  operators  for  this  purpose. 

Collodion  Positives. — When  a single  picture  only  was  de- 
sired, a short  exposure  was  given,  and  the  deposit  of  metallic 
silver  which  forms  the  image  was  whitened  by  soaking  the 
developed  plate  in  mercury  l)ichloride.  When  a black  surface 
was  then  placed  behind  the  photograph  it  stood  out  on  the 
glass  in  correct  black  and  white  as  a positive  image.  Probably 
every  household  has  specimens  of  such  collodion  positives,  of 
which  large  numbers  were  produced  between  1854  and  1870. 
An  American  improvement  consisted  in  the  use  of  thin  plates 
of  black  or  chocolate  enameled  iron — ferrotypes,  irreverently 
called  tintypes — or  sheets  of  black  japanned  leather,  instead  of 
glass.  Itinerant  photographers  still  employ  this  “positive” 
method  largely,  since  by  it  they  can  complete  and  hand  over 
their  productions  to  their  clients  within  a few  minutes. 

For  making  lantern  slides  the  wet  collodion  process  is  still 
coii>idered  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  method. 

Popularization  of  Photography. — Fp  to  about  1853  a pho- 
tograph was  considered  a curiosity ; but  the  introduction  and 
perfection  of  the  collodion  process  made  photography,  for  the 
first  time,  a really  popular  pursuit.  With  mistaken  ideas  as 
to  the  ease  of  tlie  new  method,  large  numbers  of  amateurs 
purchased  the  necessary  materials,  and,  about  1858,  the  camera 
became  as  common  an  object  as  the  barrel  organ  ! 

But  with  the  practice  of  photography  came  the  sad  knowl- 
edge that  there  is  no  royal  road  to  the  taking  of  good  pictures. 
Although  money  might  be  lavishly  spent  in  the  purchase  of 
costly  apparatus,  yet  it  was  soon  found  that  some  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  and  some  artistic  taste,  together  with  practice  in 
manipulation,  and  neatness  and  accuracy  in  working,  were  in- 
dispensable to  success.  Moreover,  the  chemicals  employed — 
more  especially  the  silver  nitrate — had  ways  of  marking  the 
apprentice  to  photography  ; stains  of  inky  darkness  upon  the 
hands  and  clothes  soon  earned  for  the  infant  science  the  ap- 
pellation of  the  “black  art.” 


42 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Thus  the  popularity  of  photography — as  an  amnsement  for 
amatenrs — declined  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  had  risen.  Still 
some  lasting  effects  of  the  first  photographic  boom  remained. 
The  Photographic  Society  of  London,*  established  in  1853, 
has  always  exercised  a favorable  infiuence  on  photography  in 
Great  Britain  ; while  our  two  old  weekly  periodicals,  the  Pho- 
tograjpliic  News^  dating  from  1858,  and  the  British  Journal 
of  Photography^  1859  (as  a monthly  from  1854),  have  stead- 
ily led  the  way  in  endeavoring  to  make  photography  more  and 
more  a science;  and  in  showing  that  it  is  something  better 
than  a mere  mechanical  pursuit,  or  means  of  getting  a liveli- 
hood. 

Improvements  in  Lenses. — In  1841,  Towson,  of  Liverpool, 
pointed  out  that  since  in  an  ordinary  or  ‘‘  uncorrected”  lens 
the  focus  of  the  chemical  rays  (as  we  may  call  those  which 
produce  the  principal  effect  upon  the  salts  of  silver)  is  not  the 
same  as  the  focus  of  the  visual  rays,  i.  ^.,  those  by  which  the 
image  is  seen,  it  is  necessary  to  adjust  the  distance  of  the  lens 
from  the  ground  glass,  after  the  picture  has  been  focused,  in 
order  to  allow  for  this.  Here  Professor  J.  Petzval,  an  emi- 
nent mathematician  of  Vienna,  came  to  the  rescue,  and  de- 
vised a portrait  lens  which  brought  all  the  rays  practically  to 
the  same  focus.  This  lens  was  manufactured  by  Voigtlander, 
of  the  same  city,  and  soon  acquired  a great  reputation. 

Development  of  Professional  Photography . — Among  the 
earliest  daguerreotypists  of  America  were  Messrs.  John  John- 
son and  A.  Wolcott,  who  worked  together.  Mr.  Wolcott, 
in  order  to  take  portraits  more  rapidly,  devised  a camera  with 
a concave  mirror  instead  of  a lens,  and  the  plate  was  placed  in 
the  focus  of  the  mirror.  In  1840,  Johnson  came  to  London, 
took  out  a patent  for  his  refiecting  camera,”  and  entered 
into  partnership  with  the  holder  of  Daguerre’s  patent,  Mr. 
Beard.  They  engaged  a Mr.  Goddard  from  the  Polytechnic 
Institution  as  an  assistant,  and  it  was  found  that  by  using  bro- 
mine in  addition  to  iodine  for  sensitizing  the  silver  plates,  the 
time  of  exposure  was  reduced  from  minutes  to  seconds.  At 
this  time,  1841,  there  were  only  two  photographic  establish- 


Title  changed  to  Photographic  Society  of  Great  Britain,  in  1876. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


43 


ments  in  London,  those  of  Beard  and  Claudet,  but  the  new  art 
already  enjoyed  much  popularity  and  their  takings  were  fre- 
quently as  much  as  £50  per  day. 

The  census  of  Great  Britain  for  1841,  does  not  record  pho- 
tography as  an  occupation  at  all;  even  in  1851,  only  51  pro- 
fessional photographers  are  included  ; while  in  the  returns  for 
1881,  we  find  no  fewer  than  7,614  photographers. 

In  1857,  professional  photography  derived  considerable  bene- 
fit from  a fancy  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  who  had  his  portrait 
gummed  on  his  visiting  cards  in  the  place  of  his  name.  Dis- 
deri,  in  Paris,  court  photographer  to  ^7apoleon  III.,  pushed 
the  matter,  and  soon  it  became  the  correct  thing  for  every 
person  in  society  to  present  his  friends  with  his  carte-de- 
visite. 

The  patent  of  Daguerre  lapsed  in  1853,  and  as  Fox-Talbot 
was  defeated  in  a lawsuit  which  he  brought,  in  1 854,  against 
a professional  photographer  called  Laroche,  who  employed  the 
collodion  process  (which  Talbot  claimed  as  only  a modification 
of  his  calotype),  the  field  of  photography  was  free  to  all. 
Ever  since  1854  its  history  has  been  one  of  steady  and  con- 
tinued progress. 

Some  Defects  of  the  Wet  Collodion  Process. — Of  the  an- 
noyance and  damage  caused  by  the  black  stains  of  nitrate  of 
silver  we  have  already  spoken  ; but  the  odor  of  the  collodion, 
due  to  the  evaporation  of  the  ether  and  alcohol  which  it  con- 
tained, was  also  very  disagreeable,  especially  in  the  small  and 
usually  hot  rooms  in  which  photographic  operations  were  com- 
monly carried  on.  Then,  in  the  preparation  of  the  glass  plates 
before  they  were  coated,  great  care  had  to  be  exercised  to  get 
a smooth  and  chemically  clean  surface  ; the  least  scratch,  or 
speck  of  dust,  showed  as  a defect  in  the  finished  picture.  The 
making  of  collodion  was  so  troublesome  a process  that  it  was 
usually  purchased  ready  made.  The  bath  of  silver  nitrate 
was  another  source  of  endless  trouble  ; its  vagaries  fill  a large 
portion  of  the  photographic  periodicals  of  the  time  ; it  needed 
continual  care,  attention,  and  renewal.  Lastly,  the  necessity 
of  keeping  the  surface  of  the  sensitive  plate  wet  during  the 
whole  time  of  exposure,  introduced  a serious  difficulty  when 
it  was  desired  to  carry  the  plates  even  a small  distance  ; or 


44 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


when,  as  in  the  case  of  photographing  interiors,  the  neces- 
sary exposure  extended  over  a period  of  several  hours. 

Some  Achievements  of  the  Workers  with  Collodion. — Al- 
though the  photographer  who  has  only  acquired  the  art  within 
the  last  few  years  is  apt  to  look  upon  the  earlier  processes 
which  we  have  now  described  with  the  contempt  which  nat- 
urally springs  from  ignorance,  yet  it  is  certain  that  many  of 
the  wonders  of  the  new  photography  has  been  ecjualed  in  the 
past  for  there  were  giants  in  those  days  !”  The  principal  dif- 
ference is  that  the  work  has  now  been  rendered  more  easy  and 
more  certain.  We  glory  in  the  wonderful  rapidity  of  gelatine 
dry-plates,  but  many  years  ago  Breeze,  Blanchard  and  others, 
secured  upon  wet-plates  all  those  surprising  effects  of  breaking 
waves  and  fleeting  clouds  which  many  believe  have  hut  re- 
cently been  obtained. 

In  general  work,  to  take  a few  examples  only,  the  genre  pic- 
tures of  Bejlander — whose  “ Gfinx’s  Baby  ” enjoyed  unbounded 
popularity — the  landscapes  of  Mudd,  England,  Bedford,  and 
Frith,  and  the  portraits  of  Salomon,  Claudet,  and  Silvy,  were 
all  done  with  collodion,  and  will  ever  remain  hard  to  beat.” 

Effect  of  the  Recent  Improvements  in  Photography . — The 
main  result  of  the  new  discoveries  in  photography  which  have 
signalized  the  last  half  dozen  years,  has  been  to  render  it  pos- 
sible for  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  and  industry  to 
produce  good  or  even  excellent  pictures  with  far  less  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  labor  than  was  formerly  the  case ; and  this 
without  that  soiling  of  the  fingers,  clothes,  and  surroundings, 
which  in  the  old  days  caused  every  photographer  to  be  a 
marked  man.” 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY, 


45 


CHAPTEK  YI. 

COLLODION  DRi-PLATES,  WITH  THE  BATH. 

Inconvenience  of  Wet-Plates. — In  the  earliest  photographic 
processes,  the  sensitive  surfaces  employed  were  exposed  in  a 
dry  condition  to  the  action  of  light.  The  silver  chloride  paper 
of  Wedgwood  and  Davy,  the  bitiimenized  plates  of  Yiepce, 
and  the  iodized  silver  plates  of  Daguerre,  were  all  used  in  a 
dry  or  desiccated  state. 

In  the  calotype  process,  devised  by  Fox-Talbot,  where  a 
support  of  paper  coated  wdth  silver  iodide  was  employed,  the 
paper  might  be  exposed  either  in  a -svet  or  in  a dry  state.  In 
the  younger  ^^iepce’s  albumen  process  on  glass,  wdien  it  was 
desired  to  use  the  plates  dry,  which  was  generally  the  case, 
the  surface,  after  sensitizing,  was  washed  to  free  it  from  the 
free  nitrate  of  silver,  and  the  plate  \vas  then  dried  by  the  aid 
of  heat,  which  coagulated  the  albumen. 

But  in  the  collodion  process,  as  introduced  by  Scott-Archer, 
in  1851,  it  v^as  absolutely  necessary  that  the  glass  plates  coated 
with  collodion  containing  iodide  and  nitrate  of  silver,  should 
be  exposed  while  wet ; in  fact,  as  soon  as  possible  after  their 
removal  from  the  bath  of  silver  nitrate  solution.  Moreover, 
the  exposed  plates  must  be  dev^eloped  as  quickly  as  possible — 
before  the  surface  has  had  time  to  dry. 

The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  the  silver  nitrate  crystallizes 
as  the  plate  dries,  and  the  network  of  distinctly  visible  crystals 
so  formed  interferes  with  and  spoils  the  picture.  The  iodide 
of  silver  also  becomes  insensitive  to  light  when  dried  in  con- 
tact with  the  silver  nitrate,  combining  with  it  to  form  iodo- 
nitrate  of  silver. 

For  this  reason  the  ordinary  wet  collodion  process,  though 
^vell  adapted  for  the  studio,  is  not  so  suitable  for  landscape 
work  or  for  the  requirements  of  travelers.  A heavy  equip- 
ment has  to  be  carried  in  the  form  of  tent,  nitrate  bath,  etc.. 


46 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


and  a good  supply  of  water — indispensable  for  the  processes  of 
development  and  fixing — must  be  at  hand ; so  that  we  some- 
times read  of  tremendous  exertions  incurred  by  enterprising 
photographers  in  carrying  barrels  of  water  to  a mountain 
top,  where  that  precious  fluid  was  otherwise  unattainable. 
Again,  if  the  exposure  was  a very  long  one,  as  in  the 
case  of  dark  interiors  where  several  hours  were  sometimes 
necessary,  the  surface  of  the  plate  had  time  to  dry,  and 
the  picture  was  then,  of  course,  spoiled  for  the  reasons  given 
above. 

Lastly,  in  very  cold  weather  the  solution  of  silver  nitrate 
froze  upon  the  plate  when  it  was  used  in  the  open  air,  so  that 
out-of  door  photography  during  the  winter  months  was  all  but 
impossible. 

To  remedy  this  defect  of  the  wet  collodion  process,  other- 
wise so  great  an  improvement  on  all  that  had  gone  before,  was 
the  aim  of  many  experimenters  in  the  years  which  immediately 
succeeded  its  introduction  in  1851.  Of  the  steps  by  which 
success  was  finally  attained,  and  of  the  still  later  workers  who 
caused  gelatine  to  displace  collodion,  only  meagre  and  uncon-  ’ 
nected  details  have  been  hitherto  given.  Aided  by  an  earnest 
study  of  contemporary  literature,  it  will  be  our  aim  to  endeav- 
or to  supply  this  defect. 

Device  for  Preventing  Evaporation.  — Early  in  1853,  a 
French  photographer,  M.  A.  Grirod,  proposed*  to  apply  a 
second  plate  of  glass  to  the  surface  of  the  wet  collodion,  so  as 
to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the  air  ; the  plates  were  placed 
together  in  the  dark-slide,  the  plain  glass  being  next  the  light. 
After  exposure,  the  plates  were  separated,  and  the  collodion- 
ized  plate  developed  as  usual. 

One  objection  to  this  jilan  was  the  liability  to  injure  the 
delicate  skin  of  collodion.  It  was  also  difficult  to  apply  the 
second  glass  plate  witliout  including  air  bubbles  ; imperfections 
in  tlie  glass  itself  also  had  an  injurious  effect.  As  an  improve- 
ment, M.  Gaudin  suggested  the  separation  of  the  two  glass 
plates  by  strips  of  filter  paper  around  the  edges.  The  plain 
glass  plate  would  then  be  removed  just  prior  to  exposure.  Or, 


* In  La  Ltiniicre  for  March  19th,  1853. 


A HI8T0KY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


47 


better,  the  plates  might  be  carried,  one  above  another,  in  an 
air-tight  box,  by  which  evaporation  would  be  checked.  77one 
of  these  plans,  however,  were  found  to  be  of  mnch  j)ractical 
value ; for  one  thing,  they  greatly  increased  the  weight  of 
glass  M^hich  had  to  be  carried. 

A Moist  Collodion  Process. — In  the  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine for  May,  1854,  Messrs.  John  Spiller  and  William  Crookes, 
names  that  have  since  become  famous  in  the  annals  of  chemis- 
try, proposed  to  keep  the  collodion  moist  by  the  nse  of  some 
deliquescent  salt,  i.  ^.,  some  substance  which,  having  a strong 
affinity  for  water,  would  absorb  moisture  from  the  air.  They 
tried  the  nitrates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  zinc.  The  glass  plate 
was  collodionized  and  sensitized  in  the  usual  wa^q  and  was 
then  immersed  in  a solution  of  zinc  nitrate  and  silver  nitrate 
for  five  minutes.  After  draining  for  half  an  hour  on  blotting- 
paper,  the  plate  was  ready  for  use.  Such  plates  remained 
moist  (owing  to  the  hygroscopic  nature  of  the  zinc  salt),  and 
tit  for  use  for  a week  or  more.  They  could  also  be  kept  for 
some  time  after  exposure,  but  before  development  it  was 
necessary  to  dip  them  again  into  the  silver  nitrate  bath.  Sub- 
sequently Spiller  and  Crookes  found  that  nitrate  of  magnesia 
acted  rather  better  than  nitrate  of  zinc. 

The  Honey  Process. — In  1854,  George  Shadbolt  and  Max- 
well-Lyte  independently  proposed  the  use  of  a solution  of 
honey,  or  of  grape  sugar,  to  coat  the  sensitized  plate,  which 
had  been  previously  washed  until  the  greater  part  of  the  free 
nitrate  of  silver  was  removed.  Before  development,  the  syrup 
was  washed  off,  and  the  plate  again  dipped  in  the  nitrate  bath. 
By  this  coating  with  honey  the  surface  of  the  sensitive  plate 
was  kept  moist,  and  crystallization  of  the  remaining  silver  ni- 
trate was  prevented.  Plates  treated  in  this  way  required  about 
double  the  exposure  of  ordinary  wet  plates ; but  they  could  be 
kept  for  days  between  sensitizing  and  exposing ; and  again 
between  exposing  and  developing.  They  were,  however,  very 
liable  to  spots,  since  particles  of  dust  adhered  firmly  to  the 
sticky  coating. 

The  Taupenot^  or  Collodio- Albumen  Pry- Plate  Process. — 
A process  which  found  great  favor,  and  which  was  practiced 
for  many  years,  was  published,  in  1855,  by  the  French  scien- 


48 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


tist,  Dr.  J.  M.  Taupenot.*  It  was,  in  fact,  the  first  dry-plate 
process  of  practical  utility.  As  first  published,  Taupenot’s 
method  was  to  take  the  collodionized  and  sensitized  plate,  pour 
over  it  a solution  of  iodized  albumen,  and  allow  it  to  drain  and 
dry ; the  plate  was  then  dipped  a second  time  into  a silver- 
nitrate  bath,  again  washed,  and  finally  dried.  This  double 
process  was  thought  rather  tedious,  but  the  plates  so  prepared 
would  keep  for  weeks  or  months. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  addition  of  albumen  to  the 
ordinary  silver  nitrate  bath  had  been  23reviously  recommended 
by  Mayall,f  the  plates  being  dipped  in  the  mixture,  and  then 
washed  and  dried. 

In  the  collodio-albumen  process  the  film  was  very  apt  to  slip 
otf  the  glass  during  fixing,  and  Barnes,  Hardwich,  and  others 
advocated,  in  1859,  the  application  of  a coating,  or  substratum, 
of  gelatine,  albumen,  or  india-rubber,  which,  adhering  firmly 
to  the  glass  surface  below  and  to  the  collodion  above,  would 
hold  the  latter  securely  on  the  plate. 

Taupenot’s  process  owed  its  popularity  in  England  largely 
to  Mr.  W.  Ackland,  who  wrote  several  papers  pointing  out  its 
advantages.  Of  the  many  who  practiced  it,  Mr.  James  Miidd, 
of  Manchester,  obtained  perhaps  the  best  results,  his  landscapes 
being  objects  of  admiration  at  many  of  our  exhibitions  between 
1860  and  1870.  The  princij)al,  almost  the  only,  fault  of  the 
collodio-albumen  process,  was  its  slowness.  The  plates  re- 
quired an  exposure  about  six  times  longer  than  wet  collodion. 
Then  the  plates  would  not  keep  for  very  long  periods  ; at  least, 
they  were  never  so  good  after  six  or  eight  weeks. 

The  Oxymel  Process. — This  method  of  arresting  evaporation 
from  the  surface  of  a collodionized  plate  was  described  by  J. 
D.  Llewelyn  in  April,  1856.  Oxymel  is  a mixture  of  vinegar 
and  honey,  and  plates  covered  with  it  were  found  to  retain 
their  good  qualities  for  eight  or  ten  hours.  But  the  exposures 
were  long — about  six  times  more  than  for  ordinary  wet  collo- 
dion plates. 

Collodion  Plates  Kept  in  Water. — Perhaps  the  simplest 


* La  Lumiere,  Sept.  8th,  1855. 

f younial  London  Photographic  Scciety,  May  21st,  1855. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


49 


way  of  keeping  tlie  collodion  “ moist”  was  suggested  by  H.  N. 
King,*  who  carried  his  sensitized  plates  in  a light-tight  box 
filled  witl\  distilled  water ; the  weight  of  the  water  required 
was  an  obvious  objection  to  this  plan. 

Collodion  Dry-Plates. — Mr.  G..K.  Muirhead,  of  G-lasgow, 
statedf  on  the  4th  of  August,  1854,  that  light  acts  almost  as 
energetically  on  a dry  surface  as  on  a wet,  and  if  a plate  be 
washed  well  in  water  (after  immersion  in  the  silver  bath)  to 
remove  all  the  free  nitrate,  and  allowed  to  dry,  it  will  remain 
unaltered  for  a lengthened  period  ; before  developing  the  plate 
it  must  be  dipped  in  the  silver  bath,  as  a photograph  will  not 
develop  without  the  presence  of  free  nitrate  of  silver.” 

But  in  this  discovery  Muirhead  had  been  anticipated  by  M. 
A.  Gaudin,  who  had  declared J several  months  previously,  that 
‘‘  the  presence  of  this  film  (of  nitrate  of  silver)  during  the  ex- 
posure is  altogether  superfluous ; it  is  only  useful  during  tlie 
development”  of  the  plate. 

Accordingly  Gaudin  washed  his  sensitized  plates  in  distilled 
water,  until  the  silver  nitrate  upon  their  surfaces  was  removed  ; 
having  thus  suppressed  the  argentiferous  film,”  the  plate  was 
dried  by  the  aid  of  heat,  exposed,  again  dipjied  in  the  nitrate 
bath,  and  then  developed.  In  this  very  suggestive  paj)er  the 
author  also  points  out,  that  the  absence  or  thinness  of  the  image 
at  the  point  where  the  developer  is  poured  on,  is  due  to  the 
liquid  sweeping  aw^ay  the  free  nitrate  of  silver  from  that  part. 
He  also  suggests  the  use  of  a solution  of  white  sugar,  honey, 
treacle,  etc.,  which  permit  in  fact  the  nitrate  of  silver  to  dry 
upon  the  plate  without  crystallizing ; in  this,  Gaudin  may  be 
said  to  have  anticipated  Shadbolt  and  Lyte. 

Early  in  1855,  Dr.  Hill  Korris,  of  Birmingham,  described  § 
a dry  process  in  which  the  sensitive  plates  were  waslied,  first 
in  distilled  water,  and  then  in  the  usual  developing  solution  of 
pyrogallic  acid,  after  which  they  were  dried  and  kejat  till 
wanted. 


Jo itrnal  London  Photographic  Society^  Feb.  21st,  1857. 
f Journal  Photographic  Society,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 

X In  La  Lumiere  for  April  22d  and  May  27th,  1854. 

§ Journal  London  Photographic  Society,  May  21st,  1855. 


50 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOORABHY. 


The  Fothergill  Process. — This  process  was  first  described 
bj  Mr.  Thomas  Fothergill  in  the  Times  newspaper  early  in 
1858.  It  was,  in  fact,  merely  the  first  half  of  TanpenoFs  pro- 
cess, the  albumen  being  washed  ofi  the  sensitized  plate,  which 
was  then  allowed  to  dry.  It  was  found  that  notwithstanding 
this  washing,  sufficient  albumen  was  retained  in  the  pores  of 
the  collodion  to  answer  all  necessary  purposes.  From  its  sim- 
plicity, Fothergill’s  process  was  largely  practiced  between 
1857  and  1865,  and  dry-plates  made  on  this  principle  were 
then  an  article  of  commerce. 

Dry-Plate  Preservatives. ’’’’ — After  the  publication  of  Dr. 
Tanpenot’s  collodion-albumen  process  in  1855,  every  few 
months  saw  the  announcement  of  some  new  substance  or  other, 
wherewith  the  sensitive  surface  of  a collodion  plate  might  be 
covered,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  be  dried  and  kept  ready  for  use. 
We  now  know  that  such  preservatives  ” have  a triple  func- 
tion : (1)  they  fill  the  pores  of  the  collodion  and  so  give  ready 
access  to  the  developing  solution  when  it  is  subsequently  ap- 
plied ; (2)  they  protect  the  silver  salt  from  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere ; and  (3)  they  assist  the  action  of  light  by  absorb- 
ing the  bromine  or  iodine  given  off  from  the  silver  salt  during 
the  exposure. 

Among  the  preservatives  formerly  in  use  we  may  name 
gelatine  (Hill-Korris,  July,  1856),  meta-gelatine  (Maxwell- 
Lyte,  February,  1857);  golden  syrup  (J.  Sang,  April,  1857), 
gum  arable  (A.  Johnson,  August,  1857),  besides  brown 
and  white  sugar,  dextrine,  raspberry  vinegar,  beer,  wort, 
malt,  morphine,  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  many  other  sub- 
stances. 

Dr.  Hill  Norrises  Collodio-Oelatine  Process. — Dr.  Horris 
first  laid  down  the  theory  that  for  dry  processes  a porous  col- 
lodion was  necessary,  and  that  one  great  function  of  the  pre- 
servative coating  was  to  fill  ii]d  the  pores  of  the  collodion  while 
the  latter  was  wet  and  open.  Then,  subsequently,  when  the 
developer  was  applied,  it  passed  readily  by  means  of  the  coat- 
ing into  the  collodion  film.  On  September  1st,  1856,  Dr. 
Xorris  took  out  a patent  for  the  following  process,  by  which 
pictures  may  be  produced  on  perfectly  dry  and  hard  collo- 
dion films.  Having  jiroduced  in  the  film  the  sensitive  iodide 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


51 


of  silver,  it  is  immersed  in  a solution  of  gum-arabic,  or  of 
dextrine,  starch,  gelatine,  albumen,  gum-tragacantli,  vegetable 
mucilage,  caseine,  gluten,  or  other  such  like  substances,  that 
will,  by  occupying  the  pores  of  the  collodion  filni,  prevent  its 
condensation  on  drying,  and  retain  it  in  a sensitive  and  per- 
vious state ; the  films  are  then  dried,  and  are  ready  for  expos- 
ure to  light,  or  may  be  kept  for  any  convenient  length  of  time 
and  used  as  desired.”  Dry-plates  prepared  according  to  this 
method,  or  rather,  it  was  supposed,  according  to  a modification 
of  it  which  was  kept  secret,  were  made  in  large  numbers  at 
Birmingham  under  Dr.  Norris’s  direction.  They  were  perhaps 
the  first  dry-plates  introduced  into  commerce,  and  were  large- 
ly used  between  1856  and  1866.  They  appear  to  have  had 
many  good  qualities,  and  to  have  been  nearly  as  rapid  as  wet 
plates.  A.  J.  Melhuish  writes : * Having  used  during  the 
last  year  or  two  nearly  2,000  of  Dr.  Norris’  dry  gelatine  plates, 
I have  never  had  one  negative  spoiled^  and  but  two  or  three  af- 
fected by  blistering.”  It  is  believed  that  Dr.  Norris  discov- 
ered the  superior  sensitiveness  of  bromide  over  iodide  of  silver 
and  that  it  was  bromide  of  silver  which  was  used  in  the  Nor- 
ris” dry-plates. 

The  Resin  Process. — About  the  year  1856  the  Abbe  Des- 
prats recommended  the  introduction  of  a little  resin  into  the 
collodion.  The  glass  plates  were  coated  with  this  resinized 
collodion,  which  was  then  sensitized,  and  finally  well  washed 
and  dried.  Such  plates  were  found  to  keep  well,  but  the  resin 
soon  caused  the  silver  bath  to  get  out  of  order.  Its  use- 
ful action  on  the  plate  was  due  to  the  fact  that,  being  in 
an  extremely  fine  state  of  division,  it  kept  the  collodion 
open,  and  facilitated  the  entrance  of  the  developer  into  its 
pores. 

The  Tannin  Process. — In  1861,  Major  C.  Bussell  published 
a small  book  containing  an  account  of  the  researches  which  he 
had  then  pursued  for  nearly  five  years  in  dry-plate  photog- 
raphy. A second  edition  appeared  in  1863,  and  an  appendix 
in  1865.  It  had  been  known  for  some  time  that  a wash  of 
gallic  or  pyrogallic  acid  over  the  collodion  before  drying  it. 


Journal  Photographic  Society  of  London,  January,  1860. 


52 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


imparted  keeping  powers  and  sensitiveness  to  dry-plates. 
Eussell  found  that  the  substance  from  which  these  acids  were 
prepared — tannin — was  preferable  even  to  them.  The  pro- 
cess at  first  published  was  as  follows : “ Coat  the  plate  with 
collodion,  and  sensitize  it  as  usual ; then  wash  well ; now  pour 
over  the  surface  a solution  of  tannin,  fifteen  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water;  lastly,  drain  and  dry.” 

The  Gum-Gallic  Process, — The  ingredients  from  which 
this  process  derives  its  name  were  used  by  Hardwich  in  the 
preparation  of  dry-plates  as  early  as  1860;  but  the  process 
with  which  Mr.  Russell  Manners  Gordon  obtained  such  excel- 
lent results  was  entirely  of  his  own  working  out,  and  was  first 
published  in  the  “ Photographic  'News  Year-Book  ” for  1868. 
The  plate  was  edged  with  albumen,  coated  with  iodized  collo- 
dion, and  immersed  in  the  nitrate  bath  for  ten  minutes.  It 
was  then  well  washed  and  fiowed  over  with  a solution  contain- 
ing gum  arabic,  sugar  candy  and  gallic  acid ; the  plate  being 
then  drained  and  dried.  The  exposure  required  was  from 
four  to  twenty  times  that  of  a wet-plate. 

The  Albumen  Beer-Process. — The  early  dry-plate  workers 
used  to  joke  each  other  on  a certain  “ gin-and-water  ” process, 
the  defect  of  which  was  said  to  be  that  the  liquid  would  not 
“keep.”  Sherry  was  actually  employed  with  success,  while 
beer  w^as  found  to  be  a capital  preservative.  In  1874,  Capt. 
Abney  devised  the  “ albumen-beer  process,”  which  was  suc- 
cessfully used  in  that  year  by  the  expeditions  sent  out  to  study 
the  transit  of  Yenus.  He  used  a very  porous  collodion,  which 
was  poured  on  the  glass  plates,  then  sensitized  by  immersion 
in  a bath  of  silver  nitrate,  and  fiowed  over  with  a mixture  of 
albumen  and  (fiat)  beer.  The  plate  was  drained,  and  then  a 
second  mixture,  conqiosed  of  beer  with  a little  j^yrogallic  acid, 
was  poured  over  it.  It  was  then  dried  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
and  was  ready  for  use. 

Baching  for  Dry-Plates. — Dry-plates  prepared  by  the 
methods  we  have  now  described  were  usually  translucent, 
the  light  passing  freely  through  the  film  and  being  (in  part) 
reflected  from  the  glass  behind,  thus  producing  halation.  To 
remedy  this,  it  was  usual  to  “ l)ack  ” the  jilates  with  a mixture 
of  burnt  sienna  and  gum-water,  or  some  similar  opaque  com- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


53 


pound.  Tliis  “backing”  was  washed  off  prior  to  develop- 
ment. At  a later  date,  pieces  of  black  tissue  rubbed  over  with 
glycerine  were  placed  on  the  back  of  the  plate  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  this  is  a plan  which  might  still  be  adopted  with 
profit  where  tlie  chances  of  halation  are  great. 


54 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEE  YII. 

COLLODION  EMULSION. 

What  is  an  Emulsion  f — Tlie  term  emulsion  is  applied  to  a 
liquid  wliicli  liolds  in  suspension  a large  number  of  particles  of 
some  solid  body. 

Milk  may  be  considered  as  the  type  of  an  emulsion — tbe 
word  itself  being  derived  from  tbe  Latin  emulgere^  to  milk  out 
— since  it  consists  mainly  of  water  in  wliicli  are  suspended  in- 
numerable minute  particles  of  fat  (cream).  The  white  color 
of  milk,  and  of  most  emulsions,  is  due  to  the  reflection  of  light 
from  these  solid  particles. 

Early  Worhers  with  Emulsions. — Very  soon  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  wet  collodion  process,  it  was  seen  how  advantage- 
ous it  would  be  if  the  bath  ” of  silver  nitrate  could  be  dis- 
pensed with.  In  August,  1853,  M.  A.  Gaudin,  a French  pho- 
tographer, whose  work  has  hardly  received  proper  recognition, 
stated  in  the  pages  of  La  Lumiere^  that  “ the  whole  future  of 
photography  seemed  to  require  a sensitive  collodion,  which 
could  be  preserved  in  a flask  and  poured,  when  required, 
upon  glass  or  paper ; and  by  the  use  of  which,  either  at  once, 
or  after  the  lapse  of  time,  positive  or  negative  pictures  could 
be  obtained.” 

This  idea  must  have  occurred  to  many  minds ; in  Septem- 
ber, 1861,  a London  photographer  named  Bellini,  announced* 
a process  for  coating  glass  with  a solution  of  shellac  contain- 
ing iodide,  bromide,  and  lactate  of  silver  ; “ all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  coat  a plate  with  this  preparation  and  expose  it  in  the 
camera.”  This  jirocess  was  not  a workable  one;  but  next  year 
Captain  Dixon  and  Mr.  Samuel  Fry  attempted  to  form  a com- 
pany to  work  a method  by  which  “ a preparation  is  poured 
upon  the  plate,  whereby  an  even,  homogeneous  film  is  pro- 


* Photographic  News^  page  250. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


55 


duced,  which  is  sensitive  to  light.”  The  then  editor  of  the 
Photographic  News  justly  remarked  that  “ we  conceive  it  to 
be  very  possible  that  the  germ  of  a considerable  modifi- 
cation or  revolution  in  the  ordinary  negative  process  may 
spring  from  this  discovery.”*  From  Dixon’s  patent  it  appears 
that  he  simply  added  nitrate  of  silver,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  to 
ordinary  iodized  collodion.  His  first  results — which  appear  to 
have  been  comparatively  accidental — were  his  best ; and  he  did 
not  work  out  the  method  so  as  to  arrive  at  any  definite 
formula. 

In  the  same  year  G-audin  published  in  La  Lumiere  his 
method  of  preparing  photogene^  a name  which  he  ap- 
plied to  “ any  sensitive  compound  containing  iodide  of 
silver  with  excess  of  free  nitrate  of  silver.”  He  writes: 
prepare  the  collodion  iihotogene  by  dissolving  nitrate 
of  silver  in  hot  alcohol  wfith  a few  drops  of  water,  and 
adding  this  to  collodion  ; the  mixture  must  be  well  shaken,  and 
while  shaking  add  from  time  to  time  a few  drops  of  iodized 
collodion.”  The  photogene  so  prepared  was  poured  upon  gla^s 
or  paper,  and  was  ready  for  use  at  once.  But  Gaudin  found 
that  upon  glass  the  image  develojis  very  feebly  and  super- 
ficially. The  photogene  is  almost  impenetrable  to  developing 
agents  ; and  this  is  unfortunate,  because,  but  for  that,  it  would 
realize  the  long-sought-for  dry  collodion.”  The  fact  is,  although 
Gaudin  did  not  know  it,  that  silver  iodide  alone  does  not  form 
a good  emulsion  unless  special  precautions  are  taken ; it  clots 
too  rapidly  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  collodion. 

Sayce  and  Bolton^ s Collodion  Emulsion  Process. — It  was 
on  September  9th,  1861:,  that  Messrs.  B.  J.  Sayce  and  N . B. 
Bolton,  of  Liverpool,  published  f an  account  of  a process 
which  they  had  then  but  just  devised.  They  added  nitrate  of 
silver  to  a bromized  collodion,  thereby  forming  bromide  of 
silver  in  the  collodion.  Plates  were  coated  with  this  liquid,  and 
then  flowed  over  with  tannin,  after  which  they  were  dried. 
Improvements,  mostly  by  the  authors  of  the  process,  quickly 
followed.  The  amount  of  silver  was  increased,  and  the  pre- 


^ Photographic  News,  April,  1861,  p.  193. 
f Biitish  Jo^^rnal  of  Photography. 


56 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


servative  (the  tannin)  was  mixed  with  the  emnlsion  instead  of 
being  added  afterwards.  From  this  time  we  find  the  words 
organifier,”  or  sensitizer,”  more  frequently  nsed  than  “ pre- 
servative,” for  such  substances  as  tannin,  etc.  Mr.  Sayce,  the 
elder  and  more  experienced  of  the  two  workers,  retired  in 
1865  from  the  practice  of  photography;  but  his  coadjutor, 
Mr.  Bolton,  continued  to  introduce  valuable  improvements ; 
thus,  in  November,  1865,  he  pointed  out  the  advantages  of  -a 
small  excess  of  nitrate  in  the  collodion  emulsion. 

In  April,  1870,  a well-known  American  worker,  Mr.  Carey 
Lea,  recommended  the  addition  of  a few  drops  of  aqua  regia 
to  the  emulsion,  the  result  being  that  the  plates  no  longer  fog- 
ged, a defect  to  which  they  had  previously  been  liable,  espe- 
cially when  a high  degree  of  sensitiveness  was  aimed  at.  Capt. 
Abney  has  since  shown  that  this  introduction  of  a mineral 
acid  into  the  emulsion  prevents  the  formation  of,  or  destroys 
when  formed,  any  oxide  or  sub-bromide  of  silver,  substances 
which  would  inevitably  produce  fog  on  the  application  of  the 
developer. 

Many  other  workers,  among  whom  we  may  name  Col. 
Stuart- Wortley  and  Messrs.  Ceorge  Dawson,  T.  Sutton,  W.  J. 
Stillman,  J.  W.  Gough  and  H.  Cooper,  added  their  mites ; 
and  an  unfortunate  paper  war  was  carried  on  as  to  the  respec- 
tive claims  of  B.  J.  Sayce  and  W.  B.  Bolton  to  be  considered 
the  sole,  or  at  all  events  the  principal  originator  of  the  pro- 
cess. As  the  first  announcement  of  the  collodion  emulsion 
process  was  signed  by  both,  it  surely  ought  to  be  a case  of 
‘‘  honors  divided.” 

The  Washed  Collodion  Emulsion  Process. — During  the 
first  ten  years  after  the  introduction  of  collodion  emulsion,  the 
excess  of  soluble  salts  was  removed  by  washing  the  emulsion 
after  it  had  been  poured  upon  the  glass  plates.  It  is  true  that 
in  1871  Sutton  proposed  the  use  of  a ‘‘corrected”  emulsion, 
in  which  the  proportions  of  the  bromide  and  the  nitrate  were 
so  adjusted  as  to  leave  neither  in  excess,  but  the  practical  diffi- 
culty of  securing  this  result  led  to  the  universal  practice  of 
washing  the  plates  after  the  emulsion  had  been  poured  on  them. 

On  Jannarv  I6th,  1874,  Mr.  W.  B.  Bolton  shov^ed*  that  the 


* In  the  British  Journal  of  Photography. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


57 


emulsion  miglit  be  washed  before  coating  the  plates.  A collo- 
dion emulsion  was  made  in  the  usual  way,  and  it  was  then 
poured  into  a shallow  dish.  Here  the  ether  and  alcohol  soon 
evaporated,  leaving  a semi-solid  mass  behind,  which  was  cut  up 
into  pieces  and  well  washed  until  all  the  soluble  salts  were  re- 
moved. This  pellicle  was  then  dried  and  afterwards  redis- 
solved in  ether  and  alcohol,  the  final  result  being  an  emulsion 
of  the  pure  silver  salt  in  collodion,  un contaminated  by  the 
presence  of  any  other  substance.  Such  an  emulsion  could  be 
kept  in  bottles  for  years,  and  when  required  for  use  it  was  only 
necessary  to  melt  the  emulsion  by  placing  the  bottle  containing 
it  in  hot  water,  and  then  to  coat  the  plates  and  dry  them.  A 
preservative,”  usually  tannin,  might  be  added  to  the  emul- 
sion, or  the  plates  might  be  flowed  over  with  it  after  coating 
and  before  drying.  By  this  process  Gaudin’s  ideal  was  at- 
tained, and  from  1874  to  1880  the  ‘Gvashed  collodion  emulsion 
process  ” found  many  friends  and  admirers. 

The  Beechey  Dry-Plates. — In  the  British  Journal  of 
Photography  for  October  1st,  1875,  an  English  clergyman,  the 
Bevi  Canon  Beechey,  described  what  has  been  considered  by 
many  as  the  simplest,  easiest,  and  most  uniform  preparation 
of  collodion  dry-plates”;  a fuller  account  appeared  in  the 
^‘British  Journal  Photographic  Almanac”  for  1879.  A 
collodio-bromide  emulsion  was  made  in  the  ordinary  way,  a 
few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  being  added  to  produce  a little 
chloride  of  silver  also. 

The  plates,  after  being  coated,  w^ere  soaked  for  a few  minutes 
in  flat  bitter  beer  to  which  pyrogallic  acid  had  been  added 
(thirty  grains  to  one  and  a half  pints),  which  acted  as  a “pre- 
servative.” 

Emulsion  and  dry-plates  prepared  in  this  w^ay  became  an 
article  of  commerce ; and,  indeed,  Messrs.  Pouch  still  sell 
“ Beechey  Dry-Plates  ” at  half-a-crown  per  dozen,  for  making 
lantern  transparencies.  For  landscape  work,  an  exposure  of 
about  one  minute  with  a medium  stop  was  necessary  with 
these  Beechey  plates. 


58 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEE  YIII. 

GELATINE  EMULSION  WITH  BROMIDE  OP  SILVER. 

Nature  and  Manufacture  of  Gelatin  ef^ — Gelatine  is  an 
amorplious,  brittle,  nearly  transparent,  faintly  yellow,  tasteless 
and  inodorous  animal  substance.  It  is  obtained  from  tlie  bides 
of  oxen,  skins  of  calves,  spongy  parts  of  borns,  etc.  Bones, 
when  boiled,  yield  one-tbird  tbeir  weight  of  solid  gelatine. 
Isinglass — or  fisb-glue — is  a form  of  gelatine  obtained  from 
tbe  swimming-bladder  of  tbe  sturgeon.  Ordinary  glue  is  an 
impure  form  of  gelatine ; but  fairly  pure  gelatine,  sucb  as  is 
used  in  tbe  making  of  jellies,  etc.,  was  not  manufactured  until 
tbe  beginning  of  tbe  present  century.  In  1844,  Cox,  of  Gor- 
gie,  near  Edinburgb,  patented  an  improved  method  of  making 
gelatine ; and  somewhat  later  Nelson,  of  Leamington,  Eng- 
land, introduced  steam  as  an  agent  for  softening  and  dissolving 
this  substance.  In  1872  Nelson  began  to  make  a specially 
pure  photographic  gelatine,”  which  has  ever  since  been 
largely  used.  Eoreign  makers  of  repute  at  the  present  time  are 
Coignet,  of  Paris  ; Heinrich  and  Drescher,  in  Germany,  and 
the  “Winterthur”  gelatine,  of  Switzerland.  The  maker  of 
gelatine  uses  largely  the  parings  and  cuttings  of  hides  from 
the  tan-yard,  ears  of  oxen  and  sheep,  skins  of  rabbits,  hares, 
dogs,  cats,  etc.,  old  gloves,  parchment,  etc.  These  are  stee]3ed 
in  lime-water,  washed,  and  then  bleached  with  sulphurous 
acid,  and  washed  again.  The  gelatine  is  then  extracted  by 
means  of  steam,  and  run  on  marble  slabs  to  set.  It  is  next  cut 
up  and  washed,  redissolved,  and,  lastly,  dried  in  thin  sheets  on 
nets.  In  the  cutting  it  is  the  practice  of  some  workmen  to 
lubricate  the  knives ; but  this  ought  to  be  rigorously  avoided, 
if  the  gelatine  is  to  be  used  for  photographic  purposes,  since  the 


* See  Davidowsky’s  “Practical  Treatise  on  Glue,  Gelatine,  etc.,”  8vo, 
297  pp.  ; illustrated.  Baird  & Co.,  Philadelphia. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


59 


fatty  matter  thus  introduced  causes  “pits”  or  s]3ots  in  the 
plates. 

Gelatine  is,  without  doubt,  a “ sensitizer.”  If  we  remove 
silver  bromide  from  one-half  of  a gelatine  emulsion  and  mix 
it  with  collodion,  the  collodion  emulsion  will  not  he  nearly  so 
sensitive  to  light  as  the  remaining  gelatine  emulsion  ; the  pre- 
cise cause  of  this  sensitizing  action  is  not  certainly  known. 
For  one  thing,  the  gelatine  wraps  round  and  grips  firmly  every 
particle  of  silver  bromide,  thus  allowing  us  to  use  a stronger 
developer  without  danger  of  fogging  the  plate  than  we  can  do 
in  the  case  of  collodion.  But  it  has  also  been  shown  by  the 
German  chemist,  Knopp,  that  gelatine  is  capable  of  combining 
with  bromine,  and  it  thus  assists  the  action  of  light  in  decom- 
posing the  silver  bromide  by  attracting  and  uniting  with  the 
bromine  given  off;  from  the  silver  salt  under  the  action  of 
light. 

Gelatine  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  in  which,  however,  it 
swells  considerably,  increasing  in  weight.  The  jelly  so  formed 
licpiefies  immediately  when  its  temperature  is  raised  to  about 
100  deg.  F. 

Early  Worhers  with  Gelatine. — The  introduction  of  gela- 
tine, as  a means  whereby  the  sensitive  salts  of  silver  could  be 
retained  upon  a plane  surface  of  glass  or  paper,  followed 
quickly  upon  the  publication  of  the  “ albumen-on-glass  ” pro- 
cess, discovered  by  Mepce  de  St.  Victor,  in  1848.  In  Gustave 
Le  Gray’s  book — translated  into  English  in  1850 — he  mentions 
the  use  of  gelatine  for  such  a purpose,  the  support  being  coated 
with  iodized  gelatine,  dried,  and  then  sensitized  by  immersion 
in  a bath  of  silver  nitrate  in  the  same  way  as  collodion.  The 
gelatine,  however,  was  found  to  swell  or  even  dissolve  in  the 
silver  bath.  In  Germany,  Dr.  Halleur  obtained  beautiful 
images  on  similarly  prepared  plates,  but  they  quickly  disap- 
peared, a result  probably  due  to  the  acetic  acid  (in  which  gela- 
tine is  soluble),  then  used  as  an  ingredient  of  the  developer. 

In  1854,  “E.  B.,  of  Tavistock,”  published*  full  and  clear 
directions  for  the  use  of  “Swinburne’s  patent  isinglass”  (a 
variety  of  gelatine)  as  a substitute  for  collodion,  the  exposure 


Photographic  yotirnal,  vol.  i.,  p.  206. 


60 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


required  being  tliirty-five  seconds  with  a diaphragm  or  stop  ’’ 
whose  aperture  was  one  twenty-fourth  of  the  focal  length  of 
the  lens  employed. 

In  1861,  Graudin  used  gelatine  as  one  of  the  substances  with 
which  he  prepared  his  “ photogene” — the  forerunner  of  emul- 
sion photography. 

Poitevin,  who  had  long  used  gelatine  in  his  printing  process, 
showed,  in  1862,  how  dry-plates  with  the  bath”  could  be 
prepared  with  it.  A curious  feature  of  this  method  was  that 
bichromate  of  potash  was  mixed  with  the  gelatine,  after  which 
the  plates,  coated  with  the  mixture,  were  exposed  to  light ; 
“ then  the  bichromate  reacts  upon  the  gelatine,  and  prevents 
it  from  creasing  ^ in  the  water  during  the  subsequent  opera- 
tions.” 

In  1865,  W.  H.  Smith  took  out  a patent  for  impregnating 
the  surfaces  of  wood,  canvas,  silk,  glass,  etc.,  with  some  resin- 
ous solution  which  would  fill  up  the  pores,  and  then  coating 
the  prepared  surface  with  collodion  or  gelatine,  or  any  gela- 
tinous substance — mixed  with  spirits  of  wine  and  nitrate  of 
silver,  the  nitrate  of  silver  being  mixed  with  a chloride,  a bro- 
mide or  an  iodide.  After  exposure  in  the  camera  a toning 
solution  is  employed.” 

An  Early  Experiment  with  Gelatino- Bromide. — In  Janu- 
ary, 1868,  Mr.  W.  H.  Harrison  wrote  a short  article  on  The 
Philosophy  of  Dry-Plates,”  f in  which  he  starts  by  asking  a 
question  that  we  have  not  yet  been  able  to  fully  answer : 

Why  should  one  organic  solution  give  a rapid  plate,  and  an- 
other a slow  one  ?”  In  experimenting  on  this  subject  he  made 
a very  weak  solution  of  gelatine  in  which  a “ little  bromide 
and  iodide  of  cadmium  were  dissolved,  after  which  some  nitrate 
of  silver  was  added  in  the  dark.  In  fact,  I wanted  to  have  a 
solution  which  would  give  a good  dry-plate,  by  simply  coating 
a sheet  of  glass  with  it.”  Plates  coated  with  this  emulsion 
were  dried  and  exposed  in  the  camera,  and  then  developed  by 
the  alkaline  method.  The  picture  came  out  very  rapidly, 
and  was  of  great  intensity,  but  the  rough  and  uneven  surface 


* Or,  as  we  should  say,  “ frilling." 

\ British  Journal  of  Photography^  January  17th,  1868. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


61 


of  the  film  made  it  worthless.”  When  a stronger  solution  of 
gelatine  was  used,  no  pictures  could  be  obtained,  a result  jdos- 
sibly  due  to  the  weakness  of  the  developer  then  used.  This 
article  of  Mr.  Harrison’s  appears  not  to  have  been  noticed  by 
writers  on  the  discovery  of  the  gelatino-bromide  process,  of 
which  it  really  contains  the  germ. 

Thomas  Sutton  has  a Theory. — From  1855  to  1870  there 
were  few  more  active  among  the  workers  and  writers  on  pho- 
tography than  Thomas  Sutton.  He  was  rather  too  fond  of 
theorizing,  and  was  apt  to  believe  that,  because  he  could  trace 
out  the  steps  of  a process  in  his  mind’s  eye,”  it  must,  there- 
fore, be  a practical  success.  Still,  the  following  remarks,  tak- 
en from  one  of  his  contributions  to  the  British  Journal  of 
Photography  f show  that  his  ideas  upon  gelatine  emulsion 
were  in  advance  of  the  time.  There  is  something  very  in- 
genious and  promising  in  M.  Gaudin’s  gelatine  emulsion. 
Used  with  bromide  of  silver  instead  of  iodide,  it  might  turn 
out  something  grand.  The  objection  to  collodion  is  that, 
when  it  is  allowed  to  get  dry  upon  the  plate  without  having 
been  wetted,  it  dries  to  an  almost  im23enetrable  skin,  which 
the  developer  has  scarcely  any  power  of  entering,  so  that  the 
image  is  thin  and  superficial.  This  would  not  occur  with  a 
gelatine  film.  There  do  not  seem  to  be  any  difiiculties  in 
spreading  it  as  there  are  in  spreading  albumen,  for  it  is  aj)- 
plied  hot,  and  quickly  sets.  Oxide  of  zinc  gives  a structure- 
less and  homogeneous  film  when  made  into  an  emulsion  with 
gelatine  ; bromide  of  silver  ought  to  do  the  same.  A gelatino- 
bromide  emulsion,  slightly  alkaline,  would  be  exquisitely  sen- 
sitive without  any  free  nitrate ; and  tannin,  with  the  aid  of 
the  alkali  in  the  film,  would,  no  doubt,  develop  it,  perhaps  to 
sufficient  density,  without  silver.  A great  advantage  would 
be  that  the  film  could  be  composed  of  a capital  organifier 
through  its  entire  substance,  instead  of  having  a mere  layer  of 
organifier  upon  the  surface.  The  process  is  well  worth  try- 
ing ; it  seems  to  be  right  in  theory  throughout.” 

Sutton  then  goes  on  to  describe  Gaudin’s  gelatino-iodide 
process,  after  which  comes  the  following  paragraph  which 


*July  14th,  1881. 


62 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


reads,  to  us,  amnsingly  enough : A tonrist,  employing  the 

above  process,  would  have  his  bromide  of  silver  emulsion  ready 
made  in  a semi-solid  state,  resembling  hlanc-mange  ; he  would 
melt  it  by  putting  the  bottle  containing  it  into  boiling  water  ; 
he  would  then  coat  his  plates  at  night  for  the  next  day,  and 
put  them  at  once  into  the  plate-box  to  get  dry.  ]N^o  washing 
of  the  plates  would  be  required,  and  that  is  one  grand  feature 
of  the  process.  The  next  morning  he  would  hang  a yellow 
curtain  before  his  window,  and  put  them  into  the  dark-slides, 
developing  them  at  night.  He  would  have  no  dangerous,  ex- 
plosive, strong-smelling,  unhealthy  collodion  to  carry  about 
with  him  on  his  travels,  and  he  might  pack  in  a very  small 
compass  enough  chemicals  in  a dry  state  to  last  him  for  a tour 
round  the  world.  What  a blessing  it  would  be  to  be  indepen- 
dent of  collodion,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  have  to  trust  to 
the  keeping  qualities  of  dry-plates  ! 

It  may  turn  out  that  I have  done  well  in  digging  up  this 
old  process  of  M.  Alexis  G-audin,  whose  name  be  exalted  as 
the  author  of  collodion  emulsions  and  photogenes ! ” 

Sutton  died  shortly  after  writing  the  above  note,  but  we  can 
imagine  how  enthusiastically  he  would  have  welcomed  the  ful- 
fillment of  all  his  hopes — and  more,  in  our  modern  gelatino- 
bromide  plates  which  will  ‘‘  keep,”  and  whose  exquisite  sen- 
sitiveness is  beyond  everything  that  even  he  imagined. 

Dr.  li.  L.  Maddox  makes  Gelatino-Bromide  of  Silver 
Emulsion. — In  the  autumn  of  1871,  Hr.  Maddox — so  well 
known  for  his  work  in  photo-micrography — published  in  the 
British  Journal  of  Photography"^  An  Experiment  with 
Gelatino-bromide.”  Thirty  grains  of  gelatine  were  swelled  in 
cold  water,  and  then  dissolved  by  heat,  four  drams  of  pure 
water  and  two  drops  of  aqua  regia  being  added. 

To  this  solution  eight  grains  of  cadmium  bromide  and  fif- 
teen grains  of  silver  nitrate  were  added,  forming  a fine  milky 
emulsion  of  silver  bromide.  Without  further  treatment  this 
was  spread  upon  glass  plates  and  dried.  The  plates  were 
tested  by  exposing  them  beneath  negatives,  and  gave  a faint 
but  clear  image  when  developed  with  a plain  solution  of  pyro- 


Septerrber  8th,  1871,  p.  422, 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


63 


gallic  acid;  intensification  with  pjro  and  nitrate  of  silver 
followed. 

Plates  fumed  with  ammonia  fogged  when  treated  with  pyro. 
gallic  acid.  The  gelatine  emulsion  was  also  used  to  coat 
paper  with  very  fair  results.  In  conclusion,  Dr.  Maddox 
writes : As  there  will  be  no  chance  of  my  being  able  to  con- 

tinue these  experiments,  they  are  placed  in  their  crude  state 
before  the  readers  of  the  Journal^  and  may  eventually  receive 
correction  and  improvement  under  abler  hands.  So  far  as  can 
be  judged,  the  process  seems  quite  worth  more  carefully  con- 
ducted experiments,  and,  if  found  advantageous,  adds  another 
handle  to  the  photographer’s  wheel.” 

With  our  present  knowledge  it  is  easy  to  see  why  Dr.  Mad- 
dox did  not  obtain  complete  success.  His  emulsion  would 
contain,  in  addition  to  the  silver  bromide,  silver  nitrate,  so- 
dium nitrate  and  nitric  acid  (from  the  aqua  regia).  The 
presence  of  the  free  silver  nitrate  was  the  reason  why  it  was 
possible  to  develop  the  plates  with  plain  pyrogallic  acid  ; while 
the  nitric  acid  acted  as  a restrainer,  and  caused  the  plates  to  be 
very  slow.  By  fuming  with  ammonia  the  nitric  acid  was 
neutralized,  but  the  plates  tlien  fogged,  because  the  free  silver 
nitrate  was  reduced  all  over  the  plate  by  the  developer  in  the 
absence  of  any  restrainer. 


64 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

INTRODUCTION  OP  GELATINO-BROMIDE  EMULSION  AS  AN  ARTICLE  OF  COM- 
MERCE BI  BURGESS  AND  BY  KENNETT. 

Burgess  Advertises  Gelatine  Emulsion  in  1873. — We  have 
now  seen  that,  between  1868  and  1871,  three  men — Harrison, 
Sutton  and  Maddox — had  clearly  recognized  the  possibilities 
of  gelatino-bromide  emulsion ; while  two  of  them — Harrison 
and  Maddox — had  actually  prepared  such  an  emulsion,  with — 
for  a first  experiment — a marked  degree  of  success.  Hone  of 
these  three  men,  however,  followed  up  their  work,  and  it 
seems  to  have  attracted  little  or  no  notice. 

At  least  one  worker,  however,  took  the  hint,  and  in  the 
pages  of  the  English  trade  journals  for  July,  1873,*  the  fol- 
lowing advertisement  apjieared  : 

Mr.  J.  Burgess  begs  to  announce  that  as  the  result  of  in- 
numerable ex^Deriments  he  has  made  an  important  photo- 
graphic discovery^  which  enables  him  to  prepare  dry-plates 
equal  in  sensitiveness  and  superior  in  many  respects  to  the  best 
wet-plates,  and  that  by  simply  pouring  an  emulsion  (prepared 
by  an  entirely  new  and  original  method)  on  the  glass  and  al- 
lowing it  to  dry  without  any  washing  or  the  application  of  any 
preservative ; thus  saving  an  immense  amount  of  trouble  and 
expense,  and  what  is  more  important  still,  securing  films  of 
absolute  uniformity,  of  good  keeping  qualities,  and  up  to  the 
highest  standard  of  excellence. 

“ In  order  that  any  one  may  test  the  truth  of  the  above 
statement,  a four-ounce  bottle  of  the  emulsion,  sufiicient  to  coat 
four  or  five  dozen  quarter  plates,  will  be  sent,  post  free,  for  3s. ; 
and  when  the  new  method  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  if  the 
subscribers  are  willing  to  pay  one  guinea  each,  a pamphlet  will 
be  printed  giving  an  account  of  the  experiments  which  have 


* The  exact  date  is  July  18th,  1873. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


65 


been  tried,  and  the  formula  by  which  the  results  above  de- 
scribed have  been  realized.  Address  Mr.  J.  Burgess,  Artist, 
207  Queen’s  Road,  Peckham  (London).” 

Mr.  Burgess  did  not  publish,  or  make  known  in  any  way 
the  details  of  his  process,  and  unfortunately  it  did  not  prove  a 
commercial  success.  But  the  following  quotations  from  an 
editorial  article  * will  show  its  real  nature — it  was  without 
doubt  a gelatin  o-brornide  emulsion  : 

“ We  obtained  samples  and  have  given  the  process  a trial. 
Instead  of  collodion  a colloidal  substance,  without  doubt  gela- 
tine, is  used ; and  the  sensitive  material,  which  we  assume  to 
be  bromide  of  silver,  is  introduced  in  such  a way  as  to  necessi- 
tate no  washing.  The  method  of  preparing  a plate  is  extremely 
simple.  The  emulsion,  after  being  slightly  warmed,  is  merely 
poured  upon  the  glass  and  allowed  to  dry,  and — that  is  all. 
In  exposing,  we  adhered  to  the  instructions  given,  viz. : that 
the  exposure  should  be  precisely  the  same  as  for  a wet  collo- 
dion plate.  On  the  application  of  the  developer  (alkaline 
pyro),  the  picture  rapidly  made  its  appearance,  every  detail 
being  visible.” 

In  the  next  number  of  the  same  periodical,  the  gentleman 
who  wrote  under  the  title  of  “A  Peripatetic  Photographer,” 
made  the  following  remarks  : 

It  appears  that  a new  negative  emulsion  process  has  been 
discovered  by  Mr.  Burgess,  in  which  collodion  is  displaced  by 
gelatine.  This  is  undoubtedly  a very  great  variation  in  the 
existing  state  of  emulsion  matters,  and  at  first  sight  it  seems  to 
be  an  improvement.  One  has  heard  so  much  about  the  vexed 
questions  in  collodion  emulsions,  the  difficulty  of  getting  the 
right  kind  of  pyroxyline,  and  the  impossibihty  of  succeeding 
unless  it  be  obtained ; the  difficulty  of  determining  whether  a 
little  silver  or  a little  bromide  is  the  correct  thing  to  have  in 
excess ; whether  the  organitier  or  preservative  should  consist 
of  gum,  tea,  coffee,  tannin,  salicine,  cochineal,  or  gallic  acid, 
and  so  forth ; that  one  is  glad  to  try  a process  in  which  pyrox- 
yline is  not,  in  which  there  is  neither  free  bromide  or  free 
nitrate,  but  only  the  emulsified  bromide  of  silver,  and  in  which 


* British  Journal  of  Photography,  July  25th,  18T3. 


66 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


preservatives  and  organifiers  are  rendered  of  no  avail  because 
the  whole  substance  of  the  film  itself  is  organic.  . . . The 

simplicity  of  the  Burgess  process  is  a charming  feature.  The 
emulsion  is  poured  over  the  clean  glass  plate  and,  when  dry, 
it  is  fit  for  use.  There  is  no  substratum,  no  washing,  and  no 
preservative ; while  over  and  above  all,  the  sensitiveness  is  said 
to  be  equal  to  that  of  wet  collodion,  which  if  true,  means  that 
plates  prepared  by  the  gelatino-bromide  process  may  be  used 
in  the  studio  for  the  purposes  of  every-day  portraiture.” 

The  objections  at  this  time  to  the  introduction  of  gelatine 
emulsion  were  the  necessity  for  liquefying  the  gelatine  before 
it  could  be  used ; the  equal  necessity  for  laying  down  each  plate 
in  a carefully  level  position  until  the  film  set,  and  the  long  time 
the  film  took  to  dry.” 

In  a letter  from  Mr.  Burgess  himself*  he  states  that  “ the 
weak  point  of  the  gelatino-bromide  emulsion  is  its  liability  to 
decompose,  as  I have  found  out  to  my  cost  lately.  In  a moder- 
ate temperature  it  will  keep  for  weeks ; but  in  spite  of  all  the 
antiseptics  I am  acquainted  with,  it  will  ferment  if  the  ther- 
mometer rises  above  70  deg.  Fahr.  I have,  therefore,  deter- 
mined to  confine  myself  to  the  making  of  dry-plates,  which 
will  keep  any  time.” 

In  accordance  with  this  resolve,  the  first  advertisement  of 
“gelatino-bromide  dry-plates”  appeared  on  August  29th,  1873, 
the  price  being  half  a crown  per  dozen  for  quarter  plates. 

But  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  so  great  a revolution  ; Bur- 
gess’s process  was  not — could  hardly  be — perfect,  and  the  result 
was  a lack  of  commercial  success  which  meant — for  the  time — 
failure.  But  Mr.  Burgess  never  abandoned  his  belief  in  gela- 
tine, and  in  1880  he  wrote,  for  Messrs.  W.  T.  Morgan  & Co.,  of 
G-reenwich,  an  anonymous  pamphlet,  “ The  Argentic  Gela- 
tino-Bromide  Worker’s  Guide,”  which  was  the  first  book  de- 
voted wholly  to  that  subject. 

Removal  of  Extraneous  Substances  from  the  Gelatine  Emul- 
sion,— In  the  autumn  of  1873,  a writer  who  took  for  his  nom 
de  phime  “ Ostendo  non  Ostento,”  contributed  a formula  (the 
first  which  contains  alcohol),  for  the  preparation  of  gelatine 


British  Journal  of  Photography,  August  15th,  1873. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


67 


emulsion  to  the  pages  of  the  British  Journal  of  Photography^"^ 
which  was  the  first  formula  published  since  that  of  Dr.  Mad- 
dox in  1871.  But  neither  of  these  workers  stated  the  ne- 
cessity for  the  removal  from  the  emulsion  of  the  extraneous 
salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  the  chemicals  employed. 

The  first  photographer  to  point  out  publiclyf  the  need  for 
the  removal  of  all  soluble  matter  from  the  emulsion  was  Mr.  J. 
King,  of  the  Bombay  Civil  Service,  who  dialyzed  his  emulsion, 
i.  ^.,  placed  it  in  a vessel  with  a bottom  of  vegetable  parchment 
or  bladder ; the  whole  being  half  immersed  in  a large  vessel  of 
pure  water.  Under  such  circumstances  the  soluble  salts  con. 
tained  in  the  emulsion  pass  outwards  through  the  parchment, 
etc.,  to  mingle  with  the  water.  This  process  was  well  known 
to  chemists,  but  it  had  not  before  been  employed  in  photography. 
The  editor  adds  : “ The  negatives  sent  by  Mr.  King,  illustra- 

tive of  his  paper,  are  singularly  faultless.” 

Curiously  enough  we  find  side  by  side  with  King’s  communi- 
cation, a short  letter  from  J.  Johnston,  in  which  two  very  im- 
portant points  are  included.  The  first  of  these  is  a direction 
to  use  an  excess  of  the  cadmium  or  other  soluble  bromide  in 
making  the  emulsion  (previous  workers  had  used  an  excess  of 
silver  nitrate),  and  the  second  to  “ let  it  stand  till  cold,  cut  in 
slices  with  a piece  of  thin  glass,  and  wash  in  distilled  water  to 
remove  the  excess  of  bromide.”  This  way  of  washing,  or  a 
modification  of  it,  has  ever  since  been  employed;  it  is  far 
simpler  and  more  effective  than  dialysis. 

Kennett^s  Pellicle. — Burgess’s  experiments  with*  gelatine 
emulsion  caused  Mr.  B.  Kennett,  an  amateur  residing  in  Mad- 
dock  Street,  London,  to  again  turn  his  attention  to  the  subject 
(it  seems  that  he  had  experimented  with  gelatine  some  years 
previously).  To  remedy  tlie  grave  defect  experienced  by 
Burgess,  viz.,  that  the  finished  emulsion  would  not  “ keep,” 
Kennett  took  out  the  following  patent  in  Kovember,  1873  : 

“Abridgment  of  Specification  of  Patent: 

“A.  D.  1873,  November  20,  No.  3782. 

“A  ‘substance  to  be  used  instead  of  collodion  and  other  emulsions  for 
photographic  purposes.’ 


* October  3d.  1873. 

f British  Journal  of  Photography,  November  14th,  1873. 


68 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


“ This  substance  is  produced,  for  use,  in  a dry  or  solid  condition,  and 
will  keep  good  for  any  length  of  time. 

“ The  compound  essentially  consists  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  gelatine, 
together  with  a bromide,  chloride,  or  iodide  ; and  nitrate  of  silver. 

“ The  compound  is  cleared  of  certain  salts,  which  are  formed  during  the 
mixing,  and  then  dried.  These  processes  must  be  conducted  in  non-actinic 
light. 

“ The  bromides,  chlorides  or  iodides  that  may  be  used  are  those  of  potas- 
sium, cadmium  or  ammonium.  When  the  compound  is  mixed  and 
thoroughly  incorporated,  it  contains  a free  bromide  and  nitrate  of  potash  ; 
these  are  removed  or  eliminated  by  pouring  the  compound  into  a dish,  letting 
it  cool,  and  cutting  into  small  strips  which  are  washed  with  many  changes 
of  water  until  all  the  free  salts  are  dissolved  out.  The  subsequent  drying 
process  is  accomplished  by  heating  the  compound  in  flat  dishes,  until  it  is 
reduced  to  a thick  paste.  When  cold,  it  is  stripped  from  the  dishes  and 
placed  in  suitable  frames  in  a drying-closet  in  which  a circulation  of  dry 
air  is  maintained.” 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Kennett’s  patent  is  not,  as  has  been 
stated,  for  the  whole  process  of  gelatino-bromide  emnlsion 
making,  that  had  been  previously  published  and  could  not  be 
patented,  but  for  a method  of  preserving  such  an  emulsion  in 
a dry  and  solid  state.  To  the  dried  emulsion  prepared  accord- 
ing to  the  patent,  Kennett  applied  the  name  of  pellicle ; when 
required  for  use  it  was  only  necessary  to  dissolve  this  pellicle 
in  water  and  coat  the  glass  plates  with  it. 

The  following  contemporary  advertisements  are  interesting  : 

“Notice. — R.  Kennett  is  now  issuing  his  patent  sensitized  gelatino- 
pellicle,  in  packets  containing  sufficient  to  make  two,  four  or  six  ounces 
of  emulsion,  with  full  instructions  for  use  at  the  following  prices  : One, 

two,  and  three  shillings,”* 

A complaint  against  this  pellicle  was  that  it  gave  very  thin 
images,  so  that  we  find  in  a somewhat  later  advertisement  the 
following  addition . 

“A  special  pellicle  for  obtaining  extra  density  at  Is.  6d.,  3s.  and 
4s.  6d.” 

At  a later  date  Kenuett  prepared  plates  for  sale  as  well  as 
pellicle,  and  in  April,  1876,  his  advertisement  runs  : 

“ R.  K.  is  now  prepared  with  his  rapid  pellicle  plates  to  photograph  in- 
teriors of  mines,  caverns,  or  any  other  subject  that  has  hitherto  been  an 
impossibility  with  any  other  process,  wet  or  dry R.  K.’s 


* From  the  trade  journals  for  March,  1874. 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


69 


latest  improvement  in  his  plates  admits  of  greater  latitude  of  exposure, 
gives  more  density  and  brighter  shadows,  without  in  the  least  interfering 
with  their  now  universally  acknowledged  wonderful  and  unprecedented 
rapidity.” 

During  the  years  1874:-77  Kennett  tried  hard  to  introduce 
his  gelatine  pellicle  and  dry-plates.  But  photographers  seem 
then  to  have  been  a terribly  conservative  body,  and  hard  to 
move,  and  he  failed  in  his  endeavor  to  introduce  these  articles 
into  general  practice.  The  following  note  from  an  amateur  of 
the  first  rank,  the  Kev.  H.  J.  Palmer,  will,  however,  give 
some  idea  of  their  capabilities  : * 

‘‘As  regards  exposure,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Ken- 
nett’s  rapid  pellicle  and  plates  are,  with  good  light,  really  in- 
stantaneous. Kothing  can  surpass  the  cloud,  wave,  and  street 
views  taken  with  this  preparation ; and  for  babies’  portraits  it 
is  simply  perfection  itself.  The  ordinary  pellicle  is  much 
slower,  ....  requiring  rather  more  than  half  the  ex- 
posure requisite  for  a wet-plate.” 

But  at  that  time  all  was  in  vain.  The  very  rapidity  of  the 
Kennett  plates  was  one  cause  of  their  commercial  failure.  The 
workers  of  ten  or  twelve  years  back  could  not,  generally  speak- 
ing, be  brought  to  believe  that  a dry-plate  could  possibly  be 
more  rapid  than  the  collodion  wet-plates  which  they  were  so 
accustomed  to  manipulate ; and  Kennett  complained  bitterly 
that  the  purchasers  of  his  emulsion  would  over-expose  im- 
mensely, and  then  blame  the  plates  for  fog  and  for  yielding 
thin  images.  Moreover,  the  amount  of  yellow  light  by  which 
the  dark-rooms  were  then  illuminated  was  in  most  cases  of  it- 
self sufficient  to  “ fog  ” these  sensitive  gelatine  plates. 

Processes  Worked  in  1877. — At  the  excellent  exhibition  of 
photographs  held  in  Edinburgh,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
local  photographic  society  in  1876-77,  there  were  719  pictures 
from  negatives  taken  by  the  wet  process,  as  against  105  dry- 
plate  pictures. 

The  latter  were  by  the  following  processes  : 


Fothergill 15 

Gum-gallic 8 


Collodio-albumen 


^British  Journal  of  Photography,  March  10th,  1876. 


70  A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


“Dry-plates” 20 

Warnerke’s  tissue 3 

Beer  and  albumen 15 

Coffee 9 

Emulsion  13 


Whether  any  of  the  emulsion  ” plates  were  gelatino- 
bromide  we  do  not  know ; but  in  any  case  this  summary  of 
the  pictures  contributed  to  one  of  the  most  popular  exhibitions 
ever  held,  shows  that  up  to  that  time,  only  some  ten  years  ago, 
the  gelatine  process  was  practically  not  used  at  all. 

Other  Pioneers  of  Gelatino-Bi'omide. — The  pages  of  the 
English  trade  journals  from  1873  to  1877  contain  many  useful 
suggestions  and  improvements  from  one  or  other  of  a race  of 
experimentalists  which  then  flourished,  a race  which  appears, 
alas  ! to  be  dying  out. 

In  December,  1873,  E.  W.  Foxlee  pointed  out  the  value  of 
alcohol  as  a preservative  in  gelatine  emulsion,  showing  that  it 
enabled  gelatinous  solutions  to  be  kept  for  a long  time  without 
undergoing  decomposition ; its  use  also  caused  the  plates  to  set 
and  dry  more  rapidly. 

Mr.  F.  Wratten,  in  August,  1877,  showed  that  the  gelatine 
along  with  the  silver  bromide  could  be  precipitated  by  adding 
alcohol  to  the  solution  containing  it,  leaving  behind  in  the 
water  all  the  soluble  salts.  By  this  method  the  necessity  for 
dialysis  or  washing  could  be  obviated. 

In  the  ^‘British  Journal  Almanac”  for  1874,  Mr.  W.  B. 
Bolton  showed  how  to  form  the  emulsion  in  a small  portion  of 
the  gelatine  only,  the  remainder  being  added  at  the  close  of 
the  operation.  In  this  way  the  retarding  action  of  the  viscid 
gelatine  was  avoided.  At  a later  period  this  method  was 
found  very  useful. 

Of  other  workers  about  this  time  (1873-77)  we  can  only 
name  Messrs.  P.  Mawdsley,  H.  B.  Berkeley,  J.  W.  Grough, 
Coh  Stuart  Wortley,  and  the  anonymous  contributors,  “Ama- 
teur,” “Franklin,”  “ F.  S.  K.,”  and  “ L.  S.  D.” 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


71 


CHAPTER  X. 

GELATINE  DISPLACES  COLLODION. 

Researches  of  Stas. — M.  J.  S.  Stas,  tlie  famous  Belgian 
chemist,  publislied  in  1874*  certain  ‘^Researches  on  Chloride 
and  Bromide  of  Silver,”  in  which  he  pointed  out  that  the  lat- 
ter substance  can  exist  in  at  least  six  well-marked  physical 
states,  each  state  having  properties  peculiar  to  itself.  These 
researches  by  Stas  contain  the  key  to  our  present  system  of 
obtaining  that  exquisite  sensitiveness  to  light  in  bromide  of 
silver  which  has  of  late  years  effected  a practical  revolution  in 
photography.  But  in  1874  the  discovery  passed  unnoticed. 
Stas  was  no  photographer ; and  if  any  photographer  studied 
his  paper — which  is  doubtful — it  did  not  strike  him  that  here 
was  the  germ  of  a process  which  might  surpass  all  that  had 
gone  before.  The  following  translation  includes  the  (to  pho- 
tographers) most  interesting  portion  of  Stas’s  paper : 

“ Modifications  of  Silver  Bi-omide. — This  bromide  assumes  a large  num- 
ber of  physical  states  of  different  appearance  : 

(1.)  The  white  flaky  state.  ^ 

(2.)  The  yellow  flaky  state,  i 

(3.)  An  intense-yellow  powdery  state,  t 

(4.)  A pearly-white  powdery  state.  ^ 

(5.)  A yellowish-white  granular  state. 

(6.)  A pure  intense-yellow  crystallized  or  melted  state. 

“The  white  and  yellow  flaky  forms  (1  and  2)  are  produced  by  mixing 
cold  aqueous  solutions  of  any  suitable  silver  salt  with  hydrobromic  acid 
or  some  soluble  bromide. 

“These  two  forms  may  be  converted  into  the  powdery  or  pulverulent 
modifications  (3  and  4)  b}^  shaking  up  well  with  water.  When  we  pour 
either  the  flaky  or  the  powdery  bromide  of  silver  into  boiling  water,  it  is 
changed  instantly  into  a very  fine  powder,  which  is  the  granular  bromide 
(No.  5).  This  may  be  produced  directly,  by  adding  to  a boiling  solution 
of  silver  nitrate  (one  part  to  1,000  of  water)  a sufficient  quantity,  also  boil- 


Annales  de  Chimie.  Fifth  Series,  vol.  iii.,  p.  289. 


72 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ing,  of  a very  weak  solution  of  ammonium  bromide.  The  granular  pow- 
der resulting  from  the  breaking  up  of  the  flakes,  is  of  a dull  yellowish- 
white,  while  that  which  is  produced  by  the  transformation  of  the  pulveru- 
lent variety,  or  which  is  formed  with  the  aid  of  very  weak  solutions,  is  of 
a shining  jeWo^ish-’whxie.  Under  the  influence  of  a boiling  prolonged  for 
several  days  (the  water  being  constantly  replaced),  the  dull  granular  bro- 
mide is  modified  ; it  becomes  more  and  more  divided  to  the  point  of  re- 
maining completely  in  suspension,  and  rendering  the  water  white.  The 
suspended  bromide  presents,  in  this  case,  a shining  reflection,  and  is  not 
deposited  for  a considerable  length  of  time.  Separated  from  the  liquid  it 
is  of  a pearly-white.  The  pearly  bromide  becomes  a pure  intense-yellow 
by  contact  with  a concentrated  solution  of  ammonium  bromide.  This 
change  is,  so  to  speak,  instantaneous. 

‘‘The  granular  bromide,  either  dull  or  shining,  and  the  pearly-white 
modification  of  it,  resulting  from  the  action  of  boiling  water  on  the  first 
two,  are  the  most  sensitive  substances  to  light  with  which  I am  ac- 
quainted. 

“ It  is  sufficient  to  boil  them  for  two  or  three  seconds  in  water  over  the 
flame  of  a Bunsen  burner,  burning  with  excess  of  air,  to  cause  them  to 
blacken.  Because  of  this  extreme  liability  to  change,  these  experiments 
would  not  have  been  possible  if  they  had  not  been  carried  on  with  excep- 
tional precautions. 

“Thus  the  production  of  the  granular  bromide,  and  its  change  into  the 
pearly-white  bromide,  were  effected  in  an  apparatus  which  admitted  no 
light.  The  manipulation  of  these  bodies  took  place  in  the  dark,  and  they 
were  examined  in  a yellow  or  in  a diffused  light. 

“The  pearly-white  bromide  passes  by  fusion  into  the  pure  intense- 
yellow  state.” 

Thus,  thirteen  years  ago,  Stas  discovered  and  made  known 
that  “ the  most  sensitive  substance  to  light”  could  be  obtained 
by  the  action  of  heat  upon  silver  bromide.  Yet  his  discovery 
fell  on  barren  (photographic)  ground,  and  it  was  not  till  1879 
that  Monckhoven  showed  how  this  work  of  Stas  explained  the 
results  obtained  by  Bennett  and  others. 

Certainly  every  photographer  ought  to  study  chemistry. 

Bennett  obtains  Great  Sensitiveness  by  Stewing  the 
Emulsion. — The  report  of  a meeting  of  the  South  London 
Photographic  Society  on  March  7th,  1878,  states  that  ^^a  number 
of  gelatine  negatives  were  exhibited  by  Mr.  Bennett,  one  of 
them  being  an  interior  of  a room,  taken  by  ordinary  gaslight, 
the  exposure  being  one  hour  ” ; others  were  Boat  scene  on 
river,  exposure  by  drop-shutter — say  twentieth  of  a second,” 
and  Biver  scene,  exposure  four  seconds,”  etc.  The  experts 
who  examined  these  negatives  considered  them  sufficiently 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


73 


surprising,  and  a general  appeal  was  made  to  Mr.  Charles  Ben- 
nett— an  amateur  photographer  and  member  of  the  well-known 
firm  of  London  hatters — to  publish  the  process  by  which  he 
had  obtained  such  (for  that  time)  marvelous  results.  It  is 
greatly  to  Mr.  Bennett’s  honor  that  he  at  once  acceded  to  this 
request,  and  gave  to  the  photographic  world  on  March  29th, 
1878,'^'  the  details  of  a method  which  was  destined  to  revolu- 
tionize our  mode  of  working.  When  the  process  was  studied, 
the  essential  point  was  seen  to  be  the  use  of  heat.  The  dif- 
ferent solutions  were  to  be  made  at  a temperature  of  90 
degrees  (Fahrenheit),  and,  after  mixing,  the  temperature  of 
the  emulsion  was  to  be  maintained  at  90  deg.  (by  jdacing  the 
bottle  containing  it  in  a vessel  of  hot  water)  ‘‘for  two,  four  or 
seven  days,  according  to  rapidity  required.”  During  this  slow 
and  long-continued  heating,  the  silver  bromide  gradually  as- 
sumed the  “granular”  state  of  Stas,  and  became  exquisitely 
sensitive  to  light.  Bennett  says,  “ if  washed  after  two  days, 
the  emulsion  is  rapid  and  dense ; in  four  days,  more  rapid  and 
less  dense — quick  enough  for  any  drop-shutter  known ; with 
some  that  1 kept  for  seven  days,  with  drop-shutter  and  dull 
February  morning,  pebbles  close  to  the  camera  were  perfectly 
exposed.  The  negative  was  thin  under  ammonia,  but  bore  in- 
tensifying to  any  extent.” 

Tlie  commercial  imjiortance  of  Mr.  Bennett’s  discovery  was 
soon  seen,  and  the  trade  journals  for  April  of  the  same  year 
contain  advertisements  from  Peter  Mawdsley,  of  the  Liverpool 
Dry-Plate  Company,  of  “ Bennett  Plates  ” at  three  shillings 
per  dozen  (J-plates),  and  from  Messrs.  Wratten  & Wainright, 
of  the  “ London  Gelatine  Dry-Plates  and  Pellicle,”  the  latter 
firm  at  the  same  time  offering  collodion  emulsion  for  sale,  the 
two  processes  thus  overlapping. 

Gelatine,  however,  now  soon  beat  collodion  out  of  the  field, 
although  the  years  1878-80  must  be  considered  years  of  transi- 
tion. 

Boiling  the  Emulsion. — In  a remarkable  communication  to 
the  Photographic  Society  of  Great  Britain  in  1876,f  Lieut.- 


* See  British  Journal  of  Photogr'aphy. 

f Reprinted,  British  Journal  of  Photography,  June  30th,  1876. 


74 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Col.  Stuart  Wortley  describes  the  preparation  of  a gelatine 
emulsion  at  a temperature  of  180  deg.  Fahr.,  adding,  “you 
will  notice  that  I make  a considerable  alteration  from  any  in- 
structions that  have  hitherto  been  given  for  the  preparation  of 
a gelatine  emulsion,  as  I work  at  an  exceedingly  high  tempera- 
ture with  the  object  of  forming  my  emulsion  at  once,  instead 
of  spreading  the  formation  over  many  hours,  as,  I believe, 
other  workers  do.  I get  the  most  perfect  films  by  this  method 
of  working,  and  I am  certain  that  the  above  temperature  has 
no  injurious  effect  whatever  on  the  gelatine.”  The  only 
reason  we  can  think  of  why  Col.  Wortley  did  not  attain  com- 
plete success  with  this  method  was  that  he  did  not  maintain 
the  high  temperature  for  a sufiScient  length  of  time ; he  says 
he  allowed  the  bottle  containing  the  emulsion  to  stand  “ for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  hot  water,”  which  would  hardly  be 
long  enough  at  180  degrees  to  permit  the  conversion  of  the 
bromide  of  silver  into  the  sensitive  “granular”  molecular 
state. 

After  general  attention  had  been  drawn  to  the  gelatino-bro- 
mide  process  in  the  spring  of  1878  by  Bennett’s  remarkable 
work,  it  was  soon  found  that  the  prolonged  emulsification  re- 
quired in  his  method — stewing  for  seven  days  at  90  deg. — 
was  not  only  very  tedious  and  troublesome,  but  that — more 
especially  in  summer — it  produced  other  evils,  especially  the 
decomposition  of  a part  or  the  whole  of  the  gelatine.  Bearing 
Stuart  Wortley’s  experience  in  mind,  it  was  not  difficult  to  see 
that  a possible  remedy  might  be  found  in  cooking,  or  digesting 
the  gelatine  for  a shorter  time,  but  at  a much  higher  tempera- 
ture. This  seems  to  have  been  done  by  several  workers,  but 
it  was  first  publicly  announced  by  Mr.  G-eo.  Mansfield  at  a 
meeting  of  the  PhotograiDliic  Society  of  Ireland,  in  August, 
1879,*  who  “ drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  long  and 
troublesome  process  of  digestion  might  be  obviated  by  forming 
the  bromide  of  silver  in  a very  weak  solution  of  the  gelatine, 
which  was  then  hoiled  for  about  ten  minutes,  the  remainder  of 
the  complement  of  gelatine  in  the  formula  being  added  when 
the  first  solution  had  cooled  down  to  about  100  deg.  F.” 


* British  Journal  of  Photography  for  August  22d,  1879. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


75 


The  other  point  here  recommended — to  emulsify  the  silver- 
bromide  in  a small  portion  of  the  gelatine  only,  the  remainder 
being  added  after  the  cooking — was  a repetition  of  the  advice 
given  by  W.  B.  Bolton  in  1874;  it  is  the  plan  now  generally 
adopted. 

In  May,  1879,  Captain  Abney,  to  use  his  own  words, 
“ showed  that  a good  emulsion  might  be  foinned  by  precipitat- 
ing silver  bromide  by  dropping  a solution  of  a soluble  bro- 
mide into  a dilute  solution  of  silver  nitrate  in  water  and  glyce- 
rine. The  supernatant  liquid  was  decanted,  and  after  two  or 
three  washings  with  water,  the  precipitate  was  mixed  with  the 
proper  amount  of  gelatine.”  The  object  of  this  method  was 
to  save  the  trouble  of  washing  the  emulsion. 

In  connection  with  this  note,  it  is  curious  to  turn  back  to  a 
paper  written  by  Thomas  Sutton,  in  February,  1874,*  where 
he  writes : 

Mix  aqueous  solutions  of  silver  nitrate  and  potassium  bro- 
mide. White  silver  bromide  will  be  immediately  formed  and 
quickly  precipitated.  Wash  the  precipitate  repeatedly  in 
water  in  order  to  remove  the  potash  nitrate,  etc.  . . . Mix 

the  dry  silver  bromide  with  a little  glycerine  and  add  to  it  a 
hot  solution  of  gelatine.” 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  methods  are  nearly  identical. 
But,  alas  ! Sutton  only  asks  “ Why  not  do  this  ?”  He  did  not 
actually  try  the  experiment,  or  he  might  perhaps  have  antici- 
pated Abney  by  five  years. 

Researches  of  Monckhoven. — Dr.  D.  von  Monckhoven,  of 
Ghent,  born  1834,  died  1882,  was  an  excellent  chemist  and 
good  all-round  ” man  of  science,  who  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  the  scientific  side  of  photography.  His  “ General  Treatise 
on  Photography”  (1863),  and  “Photographic  Optics”  (1868), 
were  leading  books  in  their  day,  and  are  still  useful.  His  solar 
enlarging  apparatus  (1864)  is  well  known,  and  for  many  years 
he  carried  on  a large  business  in  Belgium  for  the  manufacture 
of  carbon  tissue,  and  afterwards  of  dry-plates. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  preparing  a 
gelatine  emulsion,  a great  deal  of  washing  is  necessary  in  order 


* British  Joiirtial  of  Photography,  February  13th,  1874. 


Y6 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


to  remoYe  the  siiperhiions  salts.  When  Monckhoven  tried  this 
plan  he  found  that  the  water  of  onr  good  city  of  Ghent  is  so 
chalky — caused  by  the  nature  of  the  soil — that  I was  obliged 
to  find  some  method  of  doing  away  with  washing  my  emul- 
sions.” The  plan  which  he  hit  upon^  was  to  mix  with  the 
fiuid  gelatine,  first,  carbonate  of  silver,  and  then  hydrobromic 
acid,  in  the  precise  quantities  in  which  they  would  combine 
chemically  with  one  another.  The  result  of  their  interaction  was 
the  formation  of  silver  bromide  (which  remained  suspended  in 
the  gelatine),  carbonic  acid  gas  which  escaped,  and  water  which 
was  harmless. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  practical  difficulties  of  the  process, 
which  required  a skilled  chemist  to  carry  it  out  successfully, 
and  the  expense  of  the  ingredients,  this  method  was  never  em- 
ployed commercially. 

Monckhoven  uses  Ammonia  to  Obtain  a Sensitive  Gelatine 
Emulsion  without  the  Aid  of  Heat, — In  the  same  paper  in 
which  Monckhoven  published  the  method  described  above,  he 
stated  that  he  had  obtained  the  sensitive  green  form  of  silver- 
bromide  by  the  addition  of  ammonia,  and  without  the  aid  of 
heat.  In  an  admirable  lecture,  delivered  in  October,  18T9,f 
before  the  Belgian  Photographic  Association,  after  describing 
the  formation  of  an  emulsion  in  the  ordinary  way  by  the  addi- 
tion of  silver  nitrate  to  a gelatinous  solution  of  ammonium 
bromide,  Monckhoven  adds : Now  pour  in  the  pure  ammo- 

nia and  shake  up  well  the  solution.  The  ammonia  exercises 
quite  a special  action  here ; its  effect  is  to  render  the  emulsion 
ready  to  be  used  in  a few  minutes ; or,  if  great  sensitiveness 
be  required,  it  can  be  obtained  in  a few  hours  instead  of  days, 
and  thus  decomposition  of  the  gelatine  is  avoided.” 

Some  remarks  in  the  same  lecture  on  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quent causes  of  failure  in  out-door  work  are  so  valuable  that 
we  reproduce  them  also.  I am  certain  that  I shall  not  make 
a great  mistake  in  saying  that  scarcely  one  dark-slide  of  a cam- 
era protects  the  plate  as  it  ought  to  do.  Light  enters,  especially 

* Monckhoven’s  paper,  read  before  the  Photographic  Society  of  France, 
in  August,  1879,  was  reprinted  in  the  British  yournal  of  Photography  for 
August  8th  of  the  same  year. 

f Reprinted  British  fournal  of  Photography,  October  17th,  1879. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


77 


when  the  shutter  of  the  slide  is  pulled  out  to  expose  the  plate. 
I have  frequently  proved  this  in  the  following  manner : I have 
exposed  a plate  in  the  camera  without  taking  the  cap  off  the 
lens ; and  in  developing,  the  entire  plate  has  been  fogged. 
You  must  also  make  certain  that  light  does  not  enter  through 
the  holes  of  the  W aterhouse  diaphragms ; nor  round  the  ring 
upon  which  the  lens  is  screwed.*  I am  accustomed  in  the  open 
air  to  completely  envelope  my  camera  with  a large  focusing 
cloth,  allowing  only  the  lens  to  protrude.  I even  open  the 
dark-slide  under  this  cloth.  . . . When  I first  began  my 
experiments  on  gelatino-bromide,  I could  obtain  nothing  but 
fogged  plates.  I wrote  to  the  maker,  and  he  informed  me 
that  the  cause  of  my  failure  was  owing  either  to  the  red  glass 
of  my  dark-room,  or  the  state  of  my  dark-slide.  I reglazed 
my  window  with  proper  glass,  and  overhauled  my  dark-slides. 
As  soon  as  I took  these  precautions  I had  no  more  trouble 
with  fog.’’ 

Monckhoven’s  “ammonia  method”  of  preparing  emulsion 
at  once  came  into  use  commercially,  and  is  employed  by  many 
manufacturers  at  the  present  day.  Plates  prepared  in  this 
way  do  not,  however,  retain  their  good  qualities  so  long  as 
those  coated  with  emulsion  which  has  been  simply  boiled. 


* Nor  round  the  cap  of  the  lens.  Look  for  these  defects  in  bright  sun- 
shine, by  removing  the  focusing  glass,  and  then  putting  head  under  focus- 
ing cloth  ; lastly,  remove  lens  and  look  through  lens  aperture  at  dark 
slide.— W.  J.  H. 


78 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  XL 

HISTORY  OP  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRINTING  PROCESSES. 

Copying  hy  Light  introduced  hy  Wedgwood  and  Davy. — 
The  first  snccessful  experiments  in  photography  were  those  in 
which  copies  of  opaque  or  semi-opaque  objects  were  obtained 
by  placing  them  upon  sensitive  paper  and  exposing  the  whole 
to  light.  The  parts  of  the  paper  not  protected  from  the  light 
were  blackened  by  it,  and  when  the  object  was  removed  its 
position  and  outline  were  shown  in  white  upon  a black  ground. 
Such  a process  was,  of  course,  only  suitable  for  fiat  and  thin 
bodies,  as  plants,  engravings,  etc. ; and  those  of  varying  degrees 
of  opacity  gave  the  best  results,  because  a similar  gradation  of 
shade  was  obtained  in  the  copies.  As  a sensitive  surface,  Schulze 
used  a mixture  of  chalk  and  silver  nitrate  in  1727,  and  Thomas 
Wedgwood  silver  nitrate  spread  upon  paper  or  leather  in  1795 ; 
Davy  in  1802  found  that  silver  chloride  gave  better  results  than 
silver-nitrate. 

Photogenic  Drawing.  — The  first  person  to  introduce  a 
photographic  copying  ^process  of  real  value  was  Fox-Talbot. 
He  commenced  his  experiments,  it  appears,  in  1834,  using  sil- 
ver nitrate  upon  paper ; but,  soon  discovering  that  silver 
chloride  mixed  with  a little  silver  nitrate  was  far  more  sensi- 
tive to  light  than  either  of  these  substances  alone,  he  employed 
it  with  great  success  for  copying  purposes,  and  even,  as  we  have 
described  in  a former  chapter,  succeeded  in  obtaining  pictures 
within  a camera  by  its  aid.  These  camera-pictures,  however, 
printed  right  out^  by  the  action  of  light,  and  this  caused 
the  exposures  to  be  very  long — from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour. 
It  was  not  till  Talbot  discovered  a method  of  development  (in 
1841)  that  his  process  became  a practical  success  as  far  as  tak- 
ing pictures  in  the  camera  was  concerned. 

To  this  copying  process  upon  paper  coated  with  certain  salts 
of  silver,  Talbot  applied  the  name  of  photogenic  drawing,” 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


79 


and  the  term  might  well  he  retained  for  this  still  useful  method 
of  copying  natural  objects  by  super-position.  In  the  first  de- 
scription of  his  process,  Talbot  writes  “I  dip  sujDerfine  writ- 
ing paper  in  a weak  solution  of  common  salt,  and  wipe  it  dry. 
I then  spread  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (60  grains  to  the 
ounce)  on  one  surface  only,  and  dry  it  at  the  fire.  By  alter- 
nately washing  the  paper  with  salt  and  with  silver,  and  drying 
it  between  times,  I have  succeeded  in  increasing  its  sensibility. 
For  fixing  the  images,  after  having  tried  ammonia  and  several 
other  reagents  with  very  imperfect  success,  the  first  thing  which 
gave  me  a successful  result  was  the  iodide  of  potassium,  much 
diluted  with  water.  If  a photogenic  picture  is  washed  over 
with  this  liquid,  an  iodide  of  silver  is  formed  which  is  abso- 
lutely unalterable  by  sunshine.  The  specimen  of  lace  which  I 
exhibited  to  the  Boyal  Society,  and  which  was  made  five  years 
ago,  was  preserved  in  this  manner.  But  my  usual  method  of 
fixing  is  different  from  this.  It  consists  in  immersing  the  pic- 
ture in  a strong  solution  of  common  salt,  and  then  wiping  off 
the  superfiuous  moisture  and  drying  it.” 

Applications  of  Photogeny. — Talbot’s  first  application  of 
his  process  was  to  the  copying  of  fiowers  and  leaves  selected 
from  his  herbarium.  In  those  early  days  of  the  art,  the  vast 
saving  of  time  and  trouble  effected  seems  to  have  struck  the 
observers  very  forcibly.  In  the  same  memoir  Talbot  remarks  : 
It  is  so  natural  to  associate  the  idea  of  labor  with  great  com- 
plexity and  elaborate  detail  of  execution,  that  one  is  more 
struck  at  seeing  the  thousand  florets  of  an  agrostis  depicted 
with  all  its  capillary  branchlets  (and  so  accurately  that  none  of 
all  this  multitude  shall  want  its  little  bivalve  calyx,  requiring 
to  be  examined  through  a lens)  than  one  is  by  the  picture  of 
the  large  and  simple  leaf  of  an  oak  or  a chestnut.  But  in 
truth  the  difficulty  is  in  both  cases  the  same.  The  one  of 
these  takes  no  more  time  to  execute  than  the  other ; for  the 
object  which  would  take  the  most  skilfull  artist  days  or  weeks 
of  labor  to  trace  or  to  copy  is  effected  by  the  boundless  powers 
of  natural  chemistry  in  the  space  of  a few  seconds.” 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  some 


* Philosophical  Magazine,  1839,  p.  209. 


80 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


objects  can  be  imitated  by  this  process,  I need  only  mention 
one  instance.  Upon  one  occasion,  having  made  an  image  of  a 
piece  of  lace  of  an  elaborate  pattern,  I showed  it  to  some  per- 
sons at  a distance  of  a few  feet,  with  the  inquiry,  whether  it 
was  a good  representation  ? : when  the  reply  was,  that  they 
were  not  to  be  so  easily  deceived,  for  that  it  was  evidently  no 
picture,  but  the  piece  of  lace  itself.” 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  ‘‘  photogenic  drawing  ” seems  to 
have  almost  fallen  into  disuse.  With  our  ordinary  sensitized 
paper,  or  with  paper  prepared  in  the  way  described  by  Talbot, 
very  beautiful  copies  of  suitable  natural  objects — ferns  for  ex- 
ample— can  be  obtained.  The  process  forms  a capital  intro- 
duction to  photography,  and  is  especially  suitable  for  ladies 
and  children.  The  copies  obtained  can  be  used  for  many  deco- 
rative purposes. 

The  First  Portraits  Printed  hy  Light. — In  Talbot’s  first 
communication  (1839)  he  clearly  recognizes  the  valuable  fact 
that  the  pictures  obtained  by  his  process  are  negatives^  from 
each  of  which  any  number  of  jpositives  can  be  obtained  by 
printing.  Thus  he  writes  : “ In  copying  engravings,  etc.,  by 
this  method  the  lights  and  shadows  are  reversed,  consequently 
the  effect  is  wholly  altered.  But  if  the  picture  so  obtained  is 
preserved so  as  to  bear  sunshine,  it  may  be  afterwards 
itself  employed  as  an  object  to  be  copied ; and  by  means  of 
this  second  process  the  lights  and  shadows  are  brought  back 
to  their  original  disposition.”  Bat  the  inventor  did  not 
then  think  of  employing  photography  as  a means  of  por- 
trait-taking, except  indeed  for  the  making  of  outline  por- 
traits, or  silhouettes.  These  are  now  often  traced  by  the 
hand  from  shadows  projected  by  a candle.  But  the  hand 
is  liable  to  err  from  the  true  outline,  and  a very  small 
deviation  causes  a notable  diminution  in  the  resemblance.  I 
believe  this  manual  process  cannot  be  compared  with  the  truth 
and  fidelity  with  which  the  portrait  is  given  by  means  of  solar 
light.” 

But  the  improvements  patented  by  Talbot  in  1811,  with 
others  added  by  Cundell  in  1844, f so  improved  the  Calotype 

* i.e.,  fixed. 

\ Philosophical  Magazine  for  May,  1844. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


81 


Process  (as  Talbot  tlien  styled  bis  method)  that  it  became  ap- 
plicable to  portraiture,  and  the  inventor  granted  licenses  to 
several  professionals  to  nse  it  for  likeness-taking.  The  first  of 
these  was  Mr.  Henry  Collen,  of  London,  of  whose  “beautiful 
Talbotype  miniatures  ” a contemporary  reviewer  remarks  * 
that,  “ touched  up  and  improved,  they  show  how  much  is  yet 
to  be  accomplished  by  the  application  of  artistic  skill  to  the 
productions  of  the  solar  ]'»encil.” 

Boohs  Illustrated  hy  Photographs. — Talbot  believed  strongly 
in  the  suitability  of  photography  for  book  illustrations,  and  in 
1844-46  he  issued  a series  of  tw^enty-four  plates  (positive 
prints  from  calotypes)  under  the  title  of  the  “ Pencil  of 
Hature.”  The  subjects  include  the  Boulevards  of  Paris, 
Bridge  of  Orleans,  Lacock  Abbey,  etc.  In  only  one  picture 
are  figures  introdnced.  In  all  existing  copies  of  this  valuable 
book  which  we  have  examined,  the  photographs  are  more  or 
less  faded,  yellow  outlines  only  being  visible,  though  a few  of 
the  photographs  are  still  of  a purplish  hue  in  the  central  part. 
A description  of  the  methods  employed  in  the  printing  is  given 
by  Mr.  Malone  in  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Photographic 
journal^  1857,  p.  270;  and  1858,  p.  23. 

In  1846,  Talbot  published  a similar  book,  entitled  “ Sun 
Pictures  in  Scotland,”  and  a specimen  of  his  work  was  given 
in  the  Art  Jour7ial  for  June  13th,  1846.  The  first  scientific 
periodical  which  contained  a photograph  as  an  illustration 
was,  we  believe,  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Aficroscopical  ScL- 
ence  for  April,  1853.  Two  Scotch  photographers,  Messrs.  Hill 
and  Adamson,  prepared  large  collections  of  Talbotypes,  about 
1850,  which  were  sold  at  prices  of  £40  and  £50  each. 

In  later  years,  more  especially  about  1866-70,  many  books, 
some  of  them  very  expensive,  were  published,  in  which  pho- 
tographs of  works  of  art,  pictures,  scenery,  etc.,  formed  the 
principal  features ; but  a radical  defect  in  most  or  all  of  these 
was  the  gradual  fading  and  yellowing  of  the  pictures,  so  that 
purchasers  became  very  chary  of  paying  from  three  to  ten 
guineas  for  such  unstable  productions.  During  the  last  few 
years,  however,  since  1883,  say,  the  introduction  of  such  per- 


* North  British  Revieuf,  1847,  p.  479. 


82 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


manent  processes  as  carbon  and  platinotype,  together  with  the 
advance  of  the  photo-mechanical  methods,  bid  fair  again  to 
bring  photography  to  the  front,  and  to  give  it  that  leading  • 
place  to  which  it  is  entitled  as  a mode  of  illustrating  books. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  add  here  that  the  first  public  exhi- 
bition of  photographs  was  held  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Society  of  Arts,  in  their  room  in  the  Adelphi,  London,  on 
December  22d,  1852.  This  exhibition  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Photographic  Society  of  London,  on  January  30th, 
1853,  and  this  society  has  ever  since  held  an  annual  exhibition 
of  photographs  in  London. 

Printing  on  Plain  Salted  Paper. — Fox-Talbot’s  method 
of  printing  upon  ordinary  white  paper  has  come  down  almost 
unaltered  to  the  present  day.  The  standard  size  of  the  paper 
employed  is  23^  by  17  inches,  and  it  is  nearly  all  made  at  the 
little  towns  of  Hives  in  France,  and  Saxe  in  Germany.  Thirty 
years  ago  the  principal  makers  of  photographic  paper  were 
Holling  worth  and  Sanford  in  England,  and  Can  son  in  France, 
but  for  some  reason  or  other  the  two  towns  above-named  now 
enjoy  a practical  monopoly.  The  chief  points  to  be  attended 
to  in  making  paper  for  use  in  photography  are  the  avoidance 
of  metallic  particles — such  as  might  come  from  buttons  in  the 
rags,  etc.,  and  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  which  is  largely  used 
by  ordinary  paper-makers  in  the  process  of  whitening  the 
paper,  but  which  is  very  destructive  to  photographs. 

The  paper  is  “ salted  ” by  being  fioated  for  three  minutes 


upon  the  following  solution  : 

Water 500  parts. 

Ammonium  chloride  8 parts. 

Sodium  citrate.  10  parts. 

Gelatine 1 part. 


It  is  then  dried  and  sensitized  by  being  fioated  for  the  same 
length  of  time  upon  a solution  of  silver  nitrate,  fifty  grains 
to  the  ounce ; when  dry  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Printing  on  Albumenized  Paper. — Plain  salted  paper  is 
most  useful  where  the  photograph  is  to  be  afterwards  colored, 
as  it  gives  a dead  surface  which  is  easy  to  work  upon ; but, 
unless  special  precautions  are  taken,  the  image  has  a gray  and 
sunken-in  appearance.  To  remedy  this,  a quantity  of  albumen 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


83 


(white  of  egg)  is  now  almost  always  mixed  with  the  first  or 
‘‘  saltinp^  ” solution.  This  fills  the  pores  of  the  paper  and  keeps 
the  sensitive  salt  of  silver  (silver  chloride)  which  is  subse- 
quently formed  by  fioating  the  prepared  paper  upon  silver 
solution,  upon  the  surface  ; its  gloss  is  also  considered  to  add 
to  the  appearance  of  the  picture.  The  introduction  of  albu- 
menized  paper  has  been  credited  to  Fox-Talbot,  but  the  first 
description  of  it  which  I have  been  able>to  find  in  English  is 
in  the  third  edition  of  Hunt’s  Manual  of  Photography  ” 
(preface  dated  December,  1852),  where  it  is  given  as  an  ex- 
tract from  a book  by  the  French  investigator  Le  Gray.  There 
is  another  account  of  the  process,  by  II.  Pollock,  in  the  jour- 
nal of  the  (London)  Photographic  Society  for  July,  1853. 

Papers  tinted  pink,  mauve,  etc.,  were  introduced  in  1863, 
and  enameled  paper  (to  give  greater  brilliancy)  about  the 
same  time. 

Thomas  Sutton  patented  (October,  1 862)  a plan  of  giving 
paper  a preliminary  coating  of  India  rubber  dissolved  in  ben- 
zole before  albunienizing  it.  This  completely  prevented  the 
solutions  sinking  into  the  paper  and  caused  the  prints  to  be 
more  vigorous  and  brilliant.  Such  paper  was  manufactured 
for  several  years  by  Messrs.  Ordish  in  London. 

In  1866,  A.  Taylor  used  * a solution  of  bleached  shellac  in 
phosphate  of  soda  to  prepare  the  paper  instead  of  albumen. 
Great  permanence  was  claimed  for  this  method. 

In  1812,  Dr.  A.  S.  Taylor  (and  A.  Smee  and  Mr.  Collen, 
about  the  same  time)  used  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver  to  sensi- 
tize plain  salted  paper  with  good  results.  Albumenized  paper 
cannot  be  sensitized  in  this  way,  inasmuch  as  it  is  dissolved  by 
the  ammonio-nitrate. 

Printing  with  the  Juices  of  Flowers. — In  1842,  Sir  John 
Herschel  devoted  much  time  to  experiments  upon  printing  on 
paper  soaked  in  the  coloring  matter  extracted  from  the  petals 
of  many  species  of  fiowers.  The  petals  were  crushed  in  a 
mortar,  a little  alcohol  added,  and  the  pulp  was  then  strained 
through  a cloth.  The  liquid  so  obtained  was  then  spread  upon 
paper  with  a brush  and  dried  in  a dark  place.  Poppies,  violets, 


^ Photographic  Netus,  June  15th,  p.  280. 


84 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


roses,  etc.,  were  tried  with  success ; but  the  exposures  required 
to  produce  a visible  impression  were  very  long,  extending  over 
weeks,  or  even  months.* 

' Printing -ouV"^  on  Gelatino- Chloride  Paper. — More  than 

twenty  years  ago  Palmer  and  Smith  showed  f how  paper 
coated  with  an  emulsion  of  gelatino-chloride  of  silver  could  be 
used  for  coating  paper  for  photographic  printing. 

In  1881,  Dr.  Eder  and  Capt.  Abney  published  J further  de- 
tails ; while  W.  T.  Wilkinson  gave  a number  of  practical  de- 
tails in  the  British  Journal  of  Photography  for  the  same 
year.§ 

Aristotype  Paper. — In  1886  the  firm  of  Liesegang,  of  Dus- 
seldorf,  in  Germany,  prepared  a paper  coated  with  gelatino- 
citro-chloride  of  silver,  which,  under  the  name  of  “Aristo,”  or 
aristotype  paper,  has  found  favor,  especially  for  printing  from 
weak  negatives.  The  picture  is  printed-out,”  as  upon  ordi- 
nary album enized  paper,  but  it  only  requires  about  one-third 
of  the  time ; it  must  then  be  toned  and  fixed.  A similar 
paper  is  manufactured  by  Obernetter.  | 

Ready-sensitized  Paper. — The  albumenizing  of  paper  is  so 
troublesome  an  operation  that  it  has  been  left,  almost  univer- 
sally, to  the  manufacturer.  But  it  is  the  custom  with  profes- 
sional photographers  and  with  many  others  to  sensitize  for 
themselves  the  already  salted  and  albumenized  paper  by  fioat- 
ing  it  upon  a bath  of  silver  nitrate.  Unfortunately,  it  is  the 
case  that  paper  sensitized  in  this  way  loses  its  color  rapidly. 
It  ought,  in  fact,  to  be  used  as  soon  as  it  is  dry.  The  con- 
venience of  a pa]:>er  which  could  be  purchased  sensitized 

and  which  would  heep  for  a reasonable  period,  was  doubtless 
recognized  at  an  ef^rly  date ; and  such  an  article  came  into  use 
commercially  in  1869,  and  is  now  largely  used  ; yet,  strange  to 


* See  Herschel  “On  the  Action  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  on  Vegetable 
Colors”;  Philosophical  Transactions,  1842,  part  ii.,  p.  181. 
f Photographic  News,  1866,  p.  24,  36. 
ilbid,  p.  400. 

§Pp.,  140,  168. 

II  This  well-known  Munich  photographer  has  died  since  this  sentence 
was  written,  but  the  paper  will  doubtless  be  continued  to  be  issued  under 
his  name. 


A IIISIOKY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


85 


say,  the  exact  method  of  prej^aratioii  has  been  successfully 
kept  a trade  secret.” 

Mr.  J.  C.  Hopkins,  in  the  Photographic  News  for  1873, 
stated  that  ordinary  sensitized  paper  keeps  well  if  placed  when 
nearly  dry  between  sheets  of  blotting-paper  which  have  been 
soaked  in  carbonate  of  soda  solution  (thirty  grains  to  the  ounce 
of  water),  and  then  dried.  Pads  of  carbonated  blotting-paper 
2)laced  behind  the  negative  in  the  printing-frame,  also  answer 
well. 

Captain  Abney  washes  the  sensitized  paper  (to  remove  the 
free  silver  nitrate)  and  then  dips  it  into  a weak  solution  of 
either  potassium  nitrite  or  potassium  sulphite. 

Mr.  W.  Bedford  sensitizes  the  paper  on  a neutral  bath,  and 
then  floats  the  face  upon  a bath  containing  thirty  grains  each 
of  citric  acid  and  of  silver  nitrate  to  the  ounce  of  water. 

Another  method  is  to  float  the  loach  of  the  paper,  after  sen- 
sitizing, upon  a weak  solution  of  citric  acid.  The  addition  of 
this  substance  to  the  printing  bath  was  recommended  in  1863* 
by  Colonel  Stuart  Wortley.  It  is  believed  that  much  of  the 
ready-sensitized  paper  made  at  the  present  day  is  sensitized 
upon  a nitrate  of  silver  bath  to  which  citric  acid  and  a little 
gum  has  been  added.  M.  Baden,  of  Albona,  found  that  by 
washing  sensitized  paper  (to  remove  the  free  nitrate  of  silver) 
the  paper  would  keep  for  a long  time ; but,  before  using,  it 
must  he  fumed  with  ammonia.  This  method  was  introduced 
into  England  in  1870,  by  Colonel  Stuart  Wortley.  f 

Ammonia  fuming  has  been  used  with  great  success  in 
America  (where  it  was  introduced  in  1863),  but  has  not  met  with 
much  favor  in  England,  although  its  effects  are  undeniably 
good,  and  old  ” samples  of  paper  may  often  be  made  avail- 
able for  use  l)y  simply  fuming  them. 

Combination  Printing. — It  is  a common  practice  with  art- 
ists to  “improve”  any  landscape  which  they  may  be  engaged 
in  painting  by  the  omittal  of  such  portions  as  would  tend  to 
mar  the  effect  of  the  flnished  picture,  replacing  them  by  ob- 
jects sketched  in  another  locality.  Figures,  too,  are  introduced 


^Photographic Journal,  February  IGth,  1868. 
\ British  Jourjial  of  Photography,  p.  337. 


86 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


where  and  as  required.  Such  a power  of  selection  is  generally 
considered  to  be  beyond  the  means  of  the  photographer ; but 
that  it  has  been  possible  to  produce  a single  print  or  finished 
picture  by  combining  two  or  more  negatives  has  been  known 
and  successfully  practiced  for  more  than  thirty  years. 

At  an  exhibition  held  in  connection  with  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  in  Glasgow,  in  1855,  Messrs.  Berwick  and 
Annan,  of  that  city,  exhibited  a picture  ‘‘printed  from  two 
different  negatives” — a figure  introduced  into  a landscape. 
The  process  was  exactly  that  subsequently  used  by  Mr.  H.  P. 
Bobinson,  which  we  have  described  further  on. 

On  April  5th,  1858,  O.  Sarony  patented  a means  of  “ pro- 
ducing a positive  portrait  by  means  of  two  or  more  negatives.” 
The  first  part  of  the  “ patent  ” is  practically  Berwick  and 
Annan’s  method,  but  he  adds,  “ these  improvements  may  also 
be  effected  by  taking  up  the  different  portions  of  the  collodion 
film  from  the  glass  of  one  or  more  negatives  and  laying  them 
down  on  a glass  or  in  the  printing-frame  in  their  proper  rela- 
tive positions,  and  then  printing  from  them  without  marks. 

This  reminds  us  of  the  plan  adopted  by  many  in  1885  (when 
paper  negatives  came  into  general  use),  of  cutting  out  the  parts 
required  from  eacli  negative  with  a sharp  pair  of  scissors,  and 
fitting  them  accurately  together  on  a sheet  of  glass. 

The  first  man  to  attract  general  attention  to  combination 
printing  was  Oscar  G.  Bejlander  (born  1803,  died  1875),  a 
Swedish  artist,  who  practiced  photography  at  Wolverhamp- 
ton, and  who  in  1857  sent  a very  large  photograph  called 
“ The  Two  Ways  of  Life  ” to  the  famous  Manchester  Exhibi- 
tion of  that  year.  Thirty  negatives  were  employed  in  printing 
this  photograph,*  each  being  laid  in  turn  upon  the  sensitized 
paper  and  exposed  to  sunlight,  while  the  rest  of  the  paper  was 
covered  over  with  black  velvet.  As  an  example  of  ingenuity 
and  power  to  overcome  difficulties,  tliis  picture  has  never 
been  surpassed. 

In  the  next  year,  1858,  Mr.  II.  P.  Bobinson  produced  his 
famous  combination  picture  (printed  from  five  negatives),  en- 


* “ On  Photographic  Composition;  with  a Description  of  ‘The  Twa 
Ways  of  Life,’  ” by  O.  G.  Rejlander.  Photographic  Journal  for  1858,  p.  191. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


87 


titled,  Fading  Away,”  a consumptive  girl  surrounded  by  griev- 
ing friends,  which  was  exhibited  in  January,  1859,  before  the 
London  Photographic  Society.*  It  attracted  great  attention, 
and  much  difference  of  opinion  was  excited  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  photography  being  employed  to  delineate  such  a 
subject.  But  all  opposition  was  stopped  by  the  splendid  series 
of  photographs  with  which  Mr.  Bobinson  followed  up  his  first 
success,  including  “ Bringing  Home  the  May,”  1863,  (size 
40  by  15  inches,  printed  from  nine  negatives),  ‘AVayside  Gos- 
sip,” ‘‘A  Merry  Tale,”  and  a score  of  others,  the  result  of  the 
artist’s  noble  resolve  ‘‘  to  do  something,  at  least  one  picture 
every  year,  for  the  love  of  art  and  of  photography.”  Mr.  Eob- 
inson’s  method  may  be  called  the  stopping-out  ” plan.  As 
many  negatives  as  are  required  are  taken,  and  then  from  each 
is  stopped  out  in  some  way  or  other — as  by  painting  over  with 
black  varnish,  or  gumming  on  paper — all  but  the  part  re- 
quired. The  sensitive  paper  is  then  printed  in  turn  under 
each  negative. 

Printing-in  Clouds. — This  is  merely  a variety  of  combina- 
tion printing.  In  the  early  days  of  photography,  about  1855 
say,  a perfectly  white  clear  sky  was  much  admired.  In  the 
very  first  number  of  the  Photogra])liic  Journal  (March, 
1853),  Sir  AY.  J.  Newton  suggests  the  addition  of  clouds  by 
the  use  on  the  skies  of  dense  negatives  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium ; or  of  India  ink  upon  thin  ones.  About  1862  the  de- 
sirability of  adding  clouds  to  landscape  prints  was  generally 
recognized,  and  at  first  this  was  done  by  painting  or  dabbing 
upon  the  back  of  the  negative.  Then  separate  cloud-negatives 
were  taken,  and  these  natural  clouds”  printed-in  by  meth- 
ods wdiich  are  well  explained  by  A^.  Bland lard  in  the  Photo- 
graphic News  for  September  4th,  1863. 

Vignetting. — This  mode  of  shading-off  the  light  so  as  to 
cast  a halo  round  the  picture  is  desciibed  by  Mr.  Latimer 
Clark  in  the  Photographic  Journal  for  December,  1853.  He 
placed  a sheet  of  some  opaque  substance  having  a hole  cut  in 


*Mr.  Robinson’s  first  description  of  his  method  is  contained  in  a paper 
printed  in  the  Photographic  Journal  for  April  16th,  I860  ; but  his  method 
is  fully  described  in  the  book  on  “ Silver  Printing”  (chap,  xiv.),  which  he 
wrote  in  conjunction  with  Capt.  Abney. 


88 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


the  center,  in  front  of  the  negative  and  about  half-an-inch 
above  it.  The  printing  frames  so  fitted  were  placed  on  a 
light  stage  which  was  made  to  revolve  by  means  of  a bottle- 
jack.  Vignetting  came  into  extended  use  in  1857-58.  Mr. 
Forrest,  of  Liverpool,  was  the  inventor  of  the  stained  and 
ground  vignetting-glasses  now"  so  commonly  used. 

History  of  Toning  Processes. — Toning,”  as  photographers 
call  it,  is  practically  gilding  the  image  formed  by  light,  either 
by  a thin  deposit  of  gold  upon  the  silver  of  which  the  image 
is  composed,  or  by  the  replacement  of  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  silver  by  gold.  In  1841  the  French  scientist,  Fizeau, 
toned  daguerreotypes  by  applying  to  the  heated  surface  of 
the  silver  plate  a mixture  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  and  chloride 
of  gold. 

The  early  paper  prints  of  Talbot  w"ere  of  a foxy-red  or 
bister  tint,  due  to  the  color  of  the  deposited  silver  in  a finely 
divided  state,  modified  by  the  “ size”  with  which  the  paper 
was  impregnated.  By  using  continuously  the  same  fixing  bath 
(adding  crystals  of  hypo  occasionally  to  keep  up  its  strength), 
or  by  placing  such  prints  in  an  “ old  hypo  bath,”  i.  e.^  one  al- 
ready impregnated  with  chloride  of  silver  and  which  had  been 
allowed  to  stand  for  a week  or  so,  or  until  a black  deposit  was 
seen  to  form,  the  prints  were  changed  in  color  from  red  to 
brown  or  black.  This  process  was  largely  used  betw^een  1848 
and  1855;  it  was  really  ‘^sulphur  toning,”  the  black  color 
being  due  to  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  silver.  A suljDhur- 
etted  organic  salt  of  silver  was,  however,  also  formed,  and  un- 
der atmospheric  influences  this  speedily  altered,  reacting  in 
addition  upon  the  other  substances  present.  At  this  period, 
moreover,  the  necessity  for  a thorough  removal  of  the  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  used  in  fixing  was  not  generally  recognized, 
and  its  presence  contributed  to  a rapid  fading  of  the  picture. 
It  is  doubtful  wdiether  a single  photograph  taken  before  1855 
con  Id  be  produced  to-day  which  has  not  undergone  serious, 
and  for  the  most  part  fatal  deterioration. 

Very  valuable  information  on  these  points  is  contained  in  a 


* Communicated  to  the  Academie  des  Sciences  on  May  15th  and  24th, 
1841. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


89 


report  of  a committee  of  the  London  Photograpliic  Society,* 
appointed  in  May,  1855,  His  Royal  Highness,  the  Prince  Con- 
sort (who  always  took  a lively  interest  in  photography),  con- 
tributing £50  towards  the  expenses  of  the  inquiry. 

The  proved  advantages  of  the  addition  of  chloride  of  gold 
to  the  hypo  solution  for  toning  daguerreotypes  naturally 
led  to  its  trial  for  the  same  purpose  for  toning  paper  prints. 
In  Gustave  Le  Gray’s  book  (published  in  France  in  1849),  he 
writes : ‘‘  I obtain  also  line  velvet-like  tints  by  putting  the 
})hotograph  (when  taken  out  of  the  hyposulphite  of  soda),  upon 
a bath  of  salt  of  gold,  using  fifteen  grains  of  the  chloride  of 
gold  to  one  pint  and  a half  of  distilled  water.”  In  this  method 
we  see  that  toning  followed  fixing  ; and  such  was  for  a long 
time  a general  custom,  being  recommended,  for  instance,  by 
Hockin,  in  1860,  in  a book  f which  had  a very  large  circula- 
tion. A disadvantage  of  Le  Gray’s  method  was  that  the  prints 
were  very  much  weakened  by  the  toning  process,  necessitating 
a great  amount  of  over-printing  to  commence  with.  The  gold 
solution  was  alwaj^s  acid. 

In  1855,  Thomas  Sutton  recommended:};  the  use  of  an  acid 
bath  of  sel  Wor  for  toning.  Sel  d^or  is  a compound  of  chloride 
of  gold  and  hyposulphite  of  soda,  formed  by  mixing  concen- 
trated solutions  of  the  two  salts,  and  then  precipitating  the 
double  salt  by  the  addition  of  alcohol.  The  print  was  washed 
before  toning,  and  fixed  afterwards.  This  process  became 
popular ; but  it  was  ultimately  abandoned  because — as  there 
was  no  means  of  knowing  how  much  o;old  remained  in  the 
bath  at  any  given  time — it  degenerated  in  the  hands  of  most 
photographers  into  mere  sulphur  toning,  the  bath  being  kept 
in  use  long  after  the  gold  was  exhausted. 

The  classical  investigations  of  Hardwich,  in  England, § com- 
menced in  1854,  and  of  Davanne  and  Girard,  in  France  (1855 
and  following  years),  laid  down  the  lines  upon  which  the  print 


'^Photographic  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  p.  251;  see  also  “ Reports  of  Juries,” 
Exhibition  of  18(52. 

f “ Practical  Hints  on  Photography,”  by  J.  B.  Hockin. 

% Photographic  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133. 

§Ibid,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  35,  268;  vol.  iii.,  etc. 


90 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ought  to  be  treated  after  its  removal  from  the  printing-frame ; 
and  minor  investigators  filled  in  the  details. 

In  1855,  Mr.  Waterhouse,  of  Halifax,  the  inventor  of  the  re- 
movable diaphragms  which  bear  his  name,  introduced  a most 
valuable  improvement  in  toning  processes  by  the  use  of  an 
alkaline  (or,  at  all  events,  strictly  non-acid)  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  gold.  The  alkali  used  by  Waterhouse  was  carbon- 
ate of  potash,  and  he  “ added  more  or  less  of  it  according  to 
the  tint  desired.”  This  process  was  first  published  in  1856  in 
the  third  edition  of  Hardwich’s  “ Photographic  Chemistry,” 
and  was  subsequently  recommended  by  Mr.  Hardwich  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  London  Photographic  Society.*  Soon 
the  changes  were  rung  on  all  the  alkalies;  Hardwich  (in  1856) 
substituted  carbonate  of  soda  for  the  potash  as  being  a salt 
more  easily  obtainable  ” ; within  the  next  year  or  two  the 
Abbe  Laborde  (in  France)  and  Hannafordf  (in  England)  used 
acetate  of  soda;  and  in  1858  Maxwell-Lyte recommended 
the  phosphate  of  soda,  his  formula  being 


“Terchloride  of  gold 10  grains. 

Phosphate  of  soda  (pure) 3 drams. 

Distilled  Water 1 pint.” 


At  that  time  the  toning  jirocess  was  commonly  called 
“coloring” — thus  Max well-Lyte’s  paper  is  entitled,  “A  Pro- 
cess for  Coloring  Positives ; ” in  a postscript  to  it  he  adds, 
“ the  phosphate  of  soda  may  be  replaced  by  common  borax.” 
From  this  time  (1858-59)  the  principal  toning  processes  may 
be  said  to  have  remained  practically  unchanged  to  the  present 
day. 

History  of  Fixiiig  Processes  for  Prints. — The  only  thing 
deplored  by  Wedgwood  and  Davy  in  1802  was  their  inability 
to  discover  any  satisfactory  solvent  for  the  salts  of  silver — the 
muriate  (or,  as  we  should  now  call  it,  the  chloride)  and  the  ni- 
trate— which  they  employed. 

In  1819  Sir  John  Herschel  pointed  out§  the  ready  solubili- 


Photographic  Jotirnal,  vol.  v.,  p.  95. 
f Ibid,  vol.  vi.  for  1859,  p.  83. 
t Ibid,  vol.  V.,  p 112. 

Edinluirgh  Philosophical  Journal. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


91 


ty  of  silver  salts  in  the  alkaline  hyposulphites.  FrQin  this 
time  the  problem  of  photography  was  solved ; but,  unfortu- 
nately, Mepce,  Daguerre,  and  Talbot  seem  to  have  known 
nothing  of  the  work  already  done  by  Davy  and  by  Herschel. 

In  1839  Daguerre  fixed  his  iodized  silver  plates  by  washing 
them  either  with  ammonia  or  with  a strong  solution  of  com- 
mon salt. 

At  the  same  time  Fox-Talbot  used  common  salt,  and  also 
solutions  of  bromide  of  potassium  and  iodide  of  potassium. 

Immediately  Herschel  heard  of  Daguerre’s  and  of  Talbot’s 
successes  in  photography  (in  January,  1839),  he  remembered 
the  substance  whose  solvent  powers  for  silver  salts  he  had 
announced  in  1819  (hy23osulphite  of  soda),  and  tlie  directions 
which  he  gives  for  its  use  in  a valuable  paper,  read  before  the  Hoy- 
al  Society  on  February  20, 1810,  have  ever  since  formed  the  foun- 
dation of  our  ordinary  method  of  fixing  photographs  on  j^aper. 
Herschel  writes,  after  washing  in  pure  water,  the  paper  must  be 
dried,  and  then  brushed  over  very  quickly  with  a flat  camel’s- 
hair  brush,  dipped  in  a saturated  solution  of  the  hyposulphite, 
first  on  the  face,  then  on  the  back.  Tins  having  remained  on 
it  till  the  pa]3er  is  completely  penetrated  with  it,  it  must  be 
washed  off  with  repeated  and  copious  effusions  of  water,  aided 
by  a soft  sponge,  with  a dabbing  motion,  often  turning  the 
picture  until  the  liquid  comes  off  without  the  slightest  sweet- 
ness. The  pliotograph  is  then  fixed,  and  may  be  dried  and 
put  by ; but  to  make  it  quite  secure  it  is  best  to  repeat  the 
process,  and  if  the  paper  be  thick,  even  a third  time.  The 
hyposulphite  of  soda  and  silver  being  liable  to  spontaneous  de- 
composition, it  is  necessary  to  be  very  careful  in  washing  away 
the  very  last  traces  of  this  salt.” 

It  would  have  been  well  if  the  early  photographers — under 
which  phrase  w^e  include  the  wx)rkers  before  1855 — had  paid  more 
attention  to  Herschel’s  remarks  ; then  we  should  have  had  more 
of  tlieir  work  remaining.  Indeed,  the  men  of  to-day  might  re- 
member the  advice  as  to  sponging  and  dabbing — Captain  Ab- 
ney strongly  recommends  this  plan — for  by  applying  pressure 
in  this  way  to  the  prints  a photograph  may  be  more  thoroughly 
freed  from  hypo  in  two  or  three  hours  than  by  days  of 
mere  soaking ; the  result  too,  being  a more  brilliant  print. 


92 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


In  the  face  of  Herschers  work,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  Fox-Talbot  could  have  included  as  part  of  a patent  for 
“ Improvements  in  the  Calotype  Process,”  which  he  took  out 
in  1843,  a claim  to  “give  increased  whiteness  to  calotype  and 
other  photographic  pictures,  and  at  the  same  time  make  them 
more  permanent,  by  plunging  them  into  a hot  solution  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  (or  any  other  soluble  hyposulphite)  after  which 
they  are  removed,  washed,  and  dried.” 

In  the  first  edition  of  his  “ Manual  of  Photography,”  pub- 
lished in  1841,  Pobert  Hunt  remarks : 

(a)  “ That  prints  upon  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  fixed  by  wash- 
ing with  distilled  water  only. 

{h)  “That  prints  upon  chloride  of  silver  are  ‘half-fixed’  by 
thorough  washing  with  pure  water. 

(c)  “ I have  in  my  possession  some  pictures  which  have  been 
fixed  with  a strong  hrine,  and  subsequently  washed  with  warm 
water.  They  have  become  slightly  blue  in  the  white  portions, 
but  otherwise  they  are  very  permanent. 

(d)  “ Chloride  of  silver  being  soluble  in  solution  of  ammonia 
and  some  of  its  salts,  they  have  been  recommended  for  fixing 
agents.  The  ammonia,  however,  attacks  the  (silver)  oxide, 
which  forms  the  darkened  part  in  some  preparations,  so  rapidly, 
that  there  is  great  risk  of  its  destroying  the  picture,  or  at  least 
of  its  impairing  it  considerably.  It  matters  not  whether  the 
liquid  ammonia  or  its  carbonate  be  used,  but  it  must  be  a very 
diluted  solution. 

(Quite  recently^^ammonia  has  again  been  brought  forward 
as  a fixing  agent  by  Mr.  P.  H.  Bow  of  Edinburgh.*) 

(e)  “ The  ferrocyanate  of  potash,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly 
called,  the  prussiate  of  potash,  converts  the  chloride  into  a 
cyanide  of  silver,  which  is  not  susceptible  of  change  by  light; 
consequently  this  cheap  salt  has  been  employed  as  a fixing 
agent;  but,  most  unfortunately,  photographs  which  have  been 
subjected  to  this  preparation  are  slowly,  but  surely  obliterated 
in  the  dark. 

{/)  “ The  iodide  of  silver,  which  is  readily  formed  by  wash- 
ing the  photograph  with  the  solution  of  the  iodide  of  potassium. 


* Photog7'aphic  News,  1887,  p.  234. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


93 


is  scarcely  sensitive  to  light.  It  tinges  the  white  lights  of  the 
picture  of  a pale  yellow — a color  which  is  extremely  active  in 
absorbing  the  chemical  rays  of  light,  and  is  therefore  quite  in- 
applicable where  any  copies  of  the  original  photograph  are  re- 
quired. 

(y)  “ Of  all  the  fixing  agents,  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  is 
decidedly  the  best.” 

These  remarks  on  fixing  agents  are  repeated  in  the  later 
-editions  of  Hunt’s  popular  manual.  They  are  taken  mainly 
from  Herschel’s  paper  of  1810  referred  to  further  on. 

About  1850,  Reuben  Phillips  used  electricity  to  accelerate 
the  fixing  process.  He  employed  “ electrodes  the  size  of  the 
photograph  to  be  fixed,  and  placing  upon  the  under  one  a flan- 
nel wetted  with  the  fixing  agent,  he  placed  the  print,  wetted 
with  the  same  solution  upon  it,  and  laid  another  wetted  flannel 
upon  the  print,  covering  the  whole  with  the  other  electrode. 
Connecting  the  electrodes  with  a galvanic  battery,  the  metallic  salt 
is  rapidly  removed  to  one  pole,  and  thus  the  fixing  process 
rendered  comparatively  short  and  easy.” 

J.  H.  Croucher  in  a book  pubhshed  in  1815,  advises*  ‘‘to 
fix  the  picture,  soak  it  for  two  or  three  minutes,  or  longer  if 
strongly  developed,  in  a solution  of  half  an  ounce  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  to  a pint  of  water,  turning  it  occasionally  ; and 
then  soak  it  in  water  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.” 

In  Le  Gray’s  book,  edition  of  1849,  he  gives  (in  addition  to  the 
hypo  bath)  a fixing  solution  of  bromide  of  potassium,  360 
grains  to  If  pints  of  water ; its  advantage  being  the  avoid- 
ance of  the  use  of  hypo  when  traveling,  the  latter  salt  be- 
ing even  then  recognised  as  likely  to  spoil  everything  photo- 
graphic with  which  it  came  into  contact. 

Other  fixing  agents  suggested  by  Herschel  in  1840  were  hy- 
driodate  of  potash  and  chromate  of  silver. 

From  the  remarks  made  in  the  paragraphs  on  toning  pro- 
cesses, it  will  be  seen  that  the  operations  of  toning  and  fixing 
were  most  commonly  performed  in  one  and  the  same  bath — 


* See  also  paper  by  R.  Hunt  “On  the  Use  of  the  Flydriodic  Salts  as 
Photographic  Agents,”  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Magazine^  September 
and  October,  1840. 


94 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


first  of  old  hypo  alone,  and  then  of  hypo,  plus  chloride  of  gold — 
from  1839  down  to  1858  ; the  advantage  of  separating  the  one 
process  from  the  other  being  first  authoritatively  shown  in  Mr. 
Hardwich’s  paper  communicated  to  the  London  Photographic 
Society  in  December,  1858.  From  that  date  down  to  the  present 
day  hyposulphite  of  soda  has  been,  we  may  say,  universally 
used  for  fixing  positive  prints  on  paper,  the  best  proportions 
being  three  ounces  of  the  salt  to  each  pint  of  water.  The 
hypo  should  be  kept  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  a little  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda”  was  first  prepared  by  Chaussier  in 
1799,  and  was  first  studied  by  Yauquelin.  In  1869,  Schutz- 
enberger  showed  that  the  so-called  hyposulphurous  acid  ” 
was  really  thiosulphurous  acid,*  from  which  it  resulted  that 
the  salts  previously  called  “ hyposulphites  ” were  really  thiosul- 
phates. The  correct  chemical  name  of  HagSgOg  is  therefore 
sodium  thio-sulphate,  but  its  old  name  of  “ hypo  ” will 
probably  stick  to  it  as  long  as  the  present  generation  of  photog- 
raphers exists. 

Magic  Photographs. — In  Ilerschel’s  excellent  paper,  pub- 
lished in  1840, f he  writes:  ‘‘By  far  the  most  remarkable  fixing 
process  with  which  I am  acquainted,  however,  consists  in  wash- 
ing over  the  picture  with  a weak  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
(mercury  bichloride),  and  then  laying  it  for  a few  moments  in 
water.  This  at  once  and  completely  obliterates  the  picture, 
reducing  it  to  the  state  of  perfectly  white  paper,  on  which  the 
nicest  examination  (if  the  process  be  perfectly  executed)  can 
detect  no  trace,  and  in  which  it  may  be  used  for  any  other  pur- 
pose, as  drawing,  writing,  etc.,  being  completely  insensible  to 
light.” 

“ Nevertheless,  the  picture,  though  invisible,  is  only  dormant, 
and  may  be  instantly  revived  in  all  its  force  by  merely  brush- 
ing it  over  with  a solution  of  neutral  hyposulphite,  after  which, 
however,  it  remains  as  insensible  as  before  to  the  action  of 


* Comptes  Rendus,  vol.  Ixix.,  p.  196. 

f On  the  Chemical  Action  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  ; on  Preparations  of 
Silver  and  other  l^ubstances,  both  Metallic  and  Non-metallic  ; and  on 
some  Photographic  Processes  ; “ Philosophical  Transactions.”  1840,  part  i. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


95 


light.  And  thus  it  may  be  successively  obliterated  and  revived 
as  often  as  we  please.  It  hardly  requires  mention  that  the 
property  in  question  furnishes  a means  of  painting  in  mezzo- 
tint (i.e.  of  commencing  on  black  paper  and  working  in  the 
lights),  as  also  a mode  of  secret  writing,  and  a variety  of  simi- 
lar applications.” 

In  1866  these  magic  photographs  ” obtained  widespread 
popularity.  They  were  sold  everywhere  at  a cheap  rate. 
The  improvement  which  brought  them  into  notice  con- 
sisted in  selling  with  each  photograph  a piece  of  blotting 
paper  which  had  been  saturated  with  hyposulphite  of  soda 
and  then  dried.  It  was  only  necessary  to  dip  this  into 
plain  water  and  lay  it  upon  the  magic  photograph  ” to  cause 
the  picture  to  appear. 

Cyanide  of  potassium  was  used  by  M.  A.  Gaudin  in  1853,* 
for  fixing  collodion  positives  on  glass,  and  for  such  work 
it  has  ever  since  been  preferred  to  hyposulphite  of  soda. 
Cyanide,  however,  is  not  fitted  for  fixing  paper  prints  on 
chloride  of  silver,  since  it  attacks  the  image.  In  extremely 
dilute  solution  (four  drops  saturated  solution  to  the  pint  of 
water)  it  has,  however,  been  found  useful  for  reducing  over- 
printed proofs.  Vernier,  in  1860,  used  it  for  this  purpose. 
One  great  drawback  to  the  use  of  this  substance  is  its  terribly 
poisonous  nature. 

Sulphite  of  soda  was  shown  in  1885,f  by  Captain  Abney,  to 
be  an  excellent  fixing  agent,  though  about  twelve  times  more 
expensive  than  hypo.  It  should  be  used  in  the  proportions 
of  four  ounces  to  the  pint  of  water. 

Sulpho-cyanide  of  Ammonia  was  proposed  as  a fixing  agent 
by  M.  Meynier  in  1863.:!:  It  gives  a yellow  hue  to  albumen- 

ized  paper,  but  answers  well  for  proofs  on  plain  salted  paper. 
A compound  fixing  and  toning  bath  of  this  salt,  plus  chloride 
of  gold,  is  said  to  answer  admirably  for  the  Aristotype  ” 
paper  lately  introduced. 


* La  Lu77iiere,  April  23d,  30th. 

\ Photographic  News,  pp.  339,  354,  370. 
f Bulletin  de  la  Socie'te'  Francaise. 


96 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRINTING  PROCESSES.-Continued. 

Printing  hy  Development.  (1)  With  Iodide  of  Silver. — In 
dull  weather  and  in  winter  it  is  sometimes  found  impossible 
to  get  a single  print  for  days  together  by  the  ‘‘printing- 
out”  process  upon  our  ordinary  printing  paper,  which  contains 
chloride  of  silver  in  albumen.  The  advantage  of  employing 
a method  of  development  to  produce  positive  prints  from 
negatives,  as  well  as  the  negatives  themselves,  was  recognized 
at  an  early  date,  for  the  necessary  time  of  exposure  to  light 
was  thereby  reduced  from  hours  it  might  be  to  seconds  ; more- 
over, the  prints  so  obtained  are  undoubtedly  more  permanent. 

In  the  Peport  of  the  Jurors  of  the  Exhibition  of  1851, 
they  state  that  Blanquart  Evrard  (France)  has  proved  “ that 
from  one  good  original  negative  (Talbotype),  any  number  of 
positive  copies  may  be  taken  to  the  extent,  indeed,  of  two  or 
three  hundred  copies  in  a rainy  day.”  The  following  graphic 
description  of  how  250  prints  were  produced  from  one  nega- 
tive with  one  pressure  frame  in  one  hour  and  fifty  minutes,  is 
by  Thomas  Sutton,  f who  was  himself  for  some  time  a partner 
with  Blanquart  Evrard  about  the  year  1857  : “ The  single  pres- 
sure frame  employed  is  contrived  to  rim  in  and  out  of  a window 
on  a platform  provided  with  rails.  The  window  has  a dark 
shutter  which  works  up  and  down  like  a guillotine.  Each 
print  was  exposed  separately  for  a few  seconds.  The  time  oc- 
cupied in  exposing  the  250  was  about  an  hour  and  a half. 
The  operation  was  conducted  by  a girl  with  a metronome  at 
her  side  which  ticks  seconds.  When  a certain  number  had 
been  exposed  they  were  taken  to  the  developing  room.  Here 
three  or  four  girls  were  employed  in  developing  the  pictures. 


* Page  277. 

f See  Photographic  Notes,  1856,  p,  68. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


97 


They  used  large  glass  dishes  and  each  girl  develoiied  twenty 
or  thirty  at  a time.  The  development  of  each  print  occupied 
about  twenty  minutes.  Of  the  250  prints  produced  on  that 
occasion,  13  were  rejected,  and  the  remainder  were  published 
and  sold.” 

“ The  girls  employed  divide  their  time  between  photography, 
and  agricultural  and  other  pursuits.  When  a sufficient  quan- 
tity has  been  ordered  a day  is  fixed  and  it  is  done.  This  is 
the  way  in  which  we  print  by  the  method  of  development. 
During  the  last  five  years  at  M.  Blanquart  Evrard’s  establish 
ment  at  Lille,  a staff  of  country  girls  have  produced  more  pre- 
sentable prints  by  the  method  of  development  than  all  the 
rest  of  Europe  combined  by  other  printing  processes.” 

This  development-printing  process  ’ consisted  in  sensitizing 
iodized  paper  upon  a solution  of  silver  nitrate  (thereby  pro- 
ducing iodide  of  silver  with  an  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver  upon 
the  paper),  and  then,  after  exposure  beneath  the  negative, 
brushing  over  it  a solution  of  gallic  acid.  This  method  was, 
tlierefore,  practically  identical  with  the  calotype  process.  The 
defects  were  the  “ cold  tone”  of  the  prints,  with  a lack  of 
purity  in  the  whites.”  No  toning  bath  was  employed.  The 
Photographic  Alburn^  issued  in  monthly  parts  (price  6 shil- 
lings), by  Sutton  and  Blanquart  Evrard,  in  1856,  contained 
four  developed  prints  in  each  part,  and  for  some  years  Sutton 
challenged  anyone  to  produce  one  of  these  prints  which,  hav- 
ing had  fair  treatment,  had  faded. 

(2)  With  Bromide  of  Silver. — In  1854,  Sir  W.  J.  Newton 
described  a method  almost  identical  with  that  given  above, 
except  that  siDer  bromide  was  formed  on  the  paper  instead  of 
silver  iodide.  The  time  of  exposure  required  was  from  half  a 
minute  to  three  minutes,  according  to  the  (sun)  light. 

Development- Printing  on  Gelatino- Bromide  Paper. — The 
first  notice  of  the  now  very  popular  and  largely  used  gelatin o- 
bromide  paper  is  contained  in  the  British  Journal  Almanac  ” 
for  1874,  where  Peter  Mawdsley  (of  the  Liverpool  Dry-Plate 
Co.)  advertises  gelatino-bromide  plates  (price  4s.  per  dozen, 
quarters),  and  adds : “in  addition  to  the  plates,  we  can  supply 


^Journal  of  Photographic  Society^  vol.  i.,  p.  222, 


98 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


sensitive  paper  at  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  less  cost,  including 
postage.” 

“For  those  who  object  to  the  weight  and  fragile  nature  of 
glass  as  a support  for  the  sensitive  film,  the  paper  possesses 
many  advantages ; in  fact,  there  is  hut  one  drawback  to  its 
use — the  slight  texture,  which,  however,  by  skill  and  care  in 
printing,  may  be  reduced  to  a minimum.  It  may  also  be  used 
for  positive  proofs  by  contact  and  development-printing,  an 
exposure  of  a few  seconds  to  gas  or  other  artificial  light  being 
sufficient.  It  will  be  found  invaluable  for  enlargements.” 

In  the  body  of  the  same  book  a capital  article,  by  P.  Mawdsley, 
also  appears  (page  129)  on  the  Development  of  Gelatino- 
Bromide  Plates  and  Paper,”  in  which  he  recommends  our  or- 
dinary pyro-ammonia  developer,  restrained  with  bromide. 

On  July  22d,  1879,  J.  W.  Swan  patented  in  England  ^‘a 
metliod  of  printing  by  development  on  surfaces  coated  with 
bromide  emulsion.” 

He  added  small  quantities  of  alum  and  carbolic  acid  to 
make  the  emulsion  less  soluble,”  or  else  submitted  the  coated 
surface  to  the  action  of  steam  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
printing  was  done  either  in  the  camera  or  by  contact  (artifi- 
cial light  preferred),  developed  with  ferrous  oxalate,”  and 
fixed  in  the  usual  way  with  hypo. 

'In  1880  Messrs.  W.  T.  Morgan  & Co.,'^  of  Greenwich,  near 
London,  commenced  the  manufacture  on  a large  scale  of  paper 
coated  with  gelatino-bromide  emulsion.  In  a pamphlet  writ- 
ten for  the  firm  by  John  Burgess,  and  published  in  July,  1880, 
it  is  stated  that  such  paper  had  been  made  by  them  since 
1874. 

In  1881  T.  C.  Poche  took  out  a similar  patent  in  America. 

In  June,  1882,  Messrs.  Morgan  & Kidd  patented  a method 
of  coating  or  enameling  paper  with  an  impervious  and  insolu- 
ble layer  of  gelatine  containing  alum  ; this  layer  prevented  the 
film  of  emulsion  subsequently  applied  from  sinking  into  the 
paper,  and  thus  rendered  it  available  for  the  production  of 
brilliant  pictures  from  small  negatives  by  contact  printing. 

Messrs.  Ilutinet  and  Stebbing  in  1883  made  a tour  of  Great 


*Now  Morgan  & Kidd,  of  Richmond,  Surrey. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


99 


Britain,  demonstrating  in  the  jDrincipal  towns  the  easy  method 
of  enlarging  with  the  lantern  upon  gelatino-bromide  paper. 

While  speaking  of  enlarging  we  may  remark  that  an  article, 
describing  a method  of  enlarging  by  daylight,  devised  by 
Heilmann,  appeared  in  AthencBum  for  July  9th,  1853. 

The  Eastman  Co.,  of  Kochester,  N.  Y.,  exhibited  their  pho- 
tographic paper  and  appliances  at  the  Inventions  Exhibition, 
South  Kensington,  in  1885,  and*  a notice  of  their  work  ap- 
peared in  the  Times  for  August  11th  of  that  year.  The  paper 
is  given  a preliminary  coating  of  gelatine,  is  then  calendered, 
and  finally  receives  a double  coating  of  gelatino-bromide  emul- 
sion. The  paper  used  for  positive  printing  requires  an  expos- 
ure, when  in  contact  with  the  negative,  of  from  three  to  twenty 
seconds.  It  is  developed  with  ferrous  oxalate,  and  requires 
no  toning. 

History  of  Development- Printing  on  Gelatino- Chloride  of 
Silver  Paper. — The  Times  newspaper  for  November  24th, 
1884,  contains  a description  of  a new  printing  paper  issued  by 
Marion  & Co.,  of  Soho  Square,  London,  and  called  the 

Alpha,”  of  which,  although  the  precise  formula  has  not  been 
published,  we  know  that  it  consists  of  silver  chloride,  together 
with  a little  silver  bromide,  contained  in  gelatine.  The  special 
advantages  of  this  paper  are  cheapness  and  the  warm  and 
varied  tones  which  can  be  obtained  ; it  generally  requires  ton- 
ing, however.  This  paper  has  been  successfully  used  in  con- 
nection with  an  automatic  printing  machine  invented  in  1885, 
by  John  Urie,  of  Glasgow,  with  which  200  prints  per  hour 
can  be  obtained. 

A very  similar  machine  was  invented  in  the  United  States 
many  years  ago  by  Fontayne. 

The  Alpha  paper  is  exposed  beneath  a negative  for  from 
ten  seconds  to  two  minutes — according  to  the  density  of  the 
negative — and  then  developed  with  ferrous  oxalate. 

A full  and  valuable  description  of  the  methods  of  making 
gelatin o-chloride  emulsion  and  spreading  the  same  upon  paper, 
opals  and  glass  for  positive  printing,  is  contained  in  a long 
series  of  papers  contributed  by  Messrs.  Ashman  and  OfFord  to 
the  Photographic  News  for  1885  and  1886. 

History  of  the  Carhon  Printing  Process. — When  the  early 


100 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


photograpliers  found  their  silver  prints  fade  one  by  one, 
despair  for  a while  took  possession  of  their  hearts ; but  they 
speedily  rallied  and  began  to  look  around  for  some  permanent 
material  in  which  to  imprint  their  pictures.  In  1856,  the  Due 
de  Luynes  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Photographic  Society  of 
France  the  sum  of  10,000  francs,  to  be  offered  for  the  inven- 
tion of  d, permanent  photographic  printing  process  ; and  in  an- 
nouncing this  handsome  donation,  the  then  president  of  the 
society,  M.  Regnault,  the  famous  chemist,  directed  the  atten- 
tion of  inventors  to  carhon  in  the  following  words : * “Of  all 
the  substances  with  which  chemistry  has  made  us  acquainted, 
the  most  permanent,  and  the  one  which  best  resists  all  chemi- 
cal reagents  in  the  temperature  of  our  atmosphere  is  carbon. 
. . . . The  present  condition  of  ancient  manuscripts  shows 

us  that  carbon,  in  the  form  of  lampblack  on  the  paper,  remains 
unchanged  for  centuries.  If,  therefore,  it  were  possible  to 
form  photographic  pictures  in  carbon,  we  should  then  have  the 
same  guarantee  for  their  permanency  that  we  now  have  for 
our  printed  books ; and  that  is  the  best  which  we  can  hope  or 
wish  for.” 

Since  carbon  is  unalterable  by  light,  the  next  step  was  to 
hnd  some  substance  upon  which  light  could  act,  and  in  which 
finely  divided  carbon  might  be  contained. 

Such  a substance  was  to  hand  in  a mixture  of  bichromate  of 
potash  and  gelatine,  which,  soluble  enough  if  kept  in  the  dark, 
becomes  insoluble  when  exposed  to  light. 

Mungo  Ponton,  in  1839,  announced  to  the  Poyal  Society  of 
Scottish  Artists  that  paper  soaked  in  a solution  of  bichromate 
of  potash  and  dried,  is  changed  in  color  from  yellow  to  brown 
by  exposure  to  sunlight.  He  obtained  copies  of  drawings  in 
this  way,  and  fixed  them  by  simply  washing  them  in  water? 
which  dissolved  out  the  unaltered  bichromate. 

In  181:0,  Becquerel  announced  that  if  the  paper  was  first 
sized  with  iodide  of  starch,  it  was  more  sensitive.  Robert 
Hunt’s  “chromatype”  process,  published  in  181-3,  varies  only 
from  Ponton’s  in  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  copper  to  the 
bichromate. 


* Bulletin  de  la  Socicie  Francaise  de  Photographies  vol.  ii.,  p.  215. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOOEAPHY, 


101 


Josepli  Dixon,  of  Massachusetts,  copied  bank-notes  in  1841 
by  mixing  gum  arabic  with  bichromate  of  potash  upon  a 
lithographic  stone,  exposing  to  light  through  a bank-note,  then 
washing  away  the  unaltered  portion  of  the  gum,  and,  lastly, 
inking  the  stone  and  taking  prints  in  the  usual  way.  Dixon’s 
method,  however,  was  not  published  till  1854,  when  it  ap- 
peared in  the  ScientiJiG  American. 

The  first  “idea”  of  the  chain  of  circumstances  which  has 
resulted  in  the  carbon  printing  process  of  to-day  is  contained 
in  a patent  taken  out  by  A.  L.  Poitevin  on  December  13th, 
1855,  in  which  he  describes  the  effect  of  light  upon  a layer  of 
“ chromatized  ” gelatine,  adding  “ a design  is  produced  in  color 
by  mixing  a suitable  color  with  the  above-mentioned  organic 
mixture,  and  when  the  photograph  is  impressed,  w^ashingaway 
those  portions  of  the  mixture  which  have  not  been  acted  upon 
by  the  light.”  The  “ suitable  color  ” might,  of  course,  be 
printer’s  ink,  lampblack,  or  any  other  form  of  finely  divided 
carbon. 

On  December  12th,  1857,  Testud  de  Beauregard  patented  a 
further  advance  in  the  method  of  “ producing  photographic 
proofs  or  pictures  by  means  of  carbon  or  other  coloring 
matter.” 

His  favorite  method,  which  we  should  consider  all  but  imprac- 
ticable, was  to  rnb  the  pigment  upon  a surface  of  bichromatized 
gelatine ; but  he  adds,  “ or  the  paper  (to  be  colored)  may  be 
immersed  in  a bath  of  India  ink  or  other  pigment  ground  up 
very  fine  with  water  and  mixed  with  bichromatized  gelatine.” 
The  paper,  having  been  prepared  in  the  dark,  is  exposed  be- 
neath the  negative  to  the  action  of  light,  after  which  it  is 
washed  in  hot  water.  This  “ dissolves  the  gelatine  which  has 
been  acted  upon  by  the  light,  but  does  not  dissolve  that  which 
has  been  rendered  insoluble  by  the  action  of  the  light,  and 
which  insoluble  gelatine  retains  the  pigment,  and  thus  pro- 
duces the  image.” 

Beauregard’s  statement  contains  a clear  outline  of  the  princi- 
ple of  the  carbon  jirocess,  but  John  Bouncy,  of  Dorchester,  Eng- 
land, has  always  claimed  to  be  the  first  to  actually  produce 
successful  carbon  prints.  The  specification  of  his  patent  is 
dated  April  10th,  1858  ; but  a fuller  description  of  his  method 


102 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


is  contained  in  Sutton’s  Photographic  Notes  for  January  1st, 
1859. 

Pouncy  exhibited  his  specimens  at  a meeting  of  the  London 
Photographic  Society,  December  Tth,  1858,  from  which  body, 
however,  he  received  little  but  depreciation  and  criticism. 
Pouncy’s  method  consisted  in  brushing  over  and  into  paper  a 
mixture  of  bichromatized  gum  and  vegetable  carbon ; the 
paper  was  then  dried,  exposed  beneath  a negative,  and  finally 
the  picture  was  brought  out  or  made  visible  by  washing  in 
water. 

By  all  these  methods  half-tones  were  wanting.  The  Abbe 
Laborde  showed  * the  reason  of  this  in  1858,  saying : In  the 

sensitive  film,  however  thin  it  may  be,  two  distinct  surfaces 
must  be  recognized,  an  outer,  and  an  inner  which  is  in  contact 
with  the  paper.  The  action  of  light  commences  on  the  outer 
surface.  In  the  washing,  therefore,  tlie  half-tones  lose  their 
hold  on  the  paper  and  are  washed  away.”  This  was,  in  fact, 
the  same  defect  which  we  have  seen  in  connection  with  the 
bitumen  process  of  the  elder  I^iepce. 

In  the  same  year  (1858)  J.  C.  Burnett  gave  a partial  remedy 
for  this  defect  by  exposing  through  the  hach  of  the  coated  paper ; 
placing,  in  fact,  the  uncoated  side  next  to  the  negative.  But 
in  1860,  Fargier,  in  France,  showed  that  the  best  way  was  to 
coat  the  exposed  film  with  collodion,  then  transfer  it  bodily 
to  glass,  and  wash  away  the  unacted-on  gelatine  from  the  thus 
exposed  back  surface  of  the  film.  A similar  process  had 
been  previously  used  by  Poitevin,  to  whom  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Due  de  Luynes’  jirize  was  ultimately  awarded  in  1867. 

Improvements  cpiickly  followed ; in  1864  J.  W.  Swan  pat- 
ented “carbon-tissue,”  which  is  simply  paper  coated  with  a 
mixture  of  gelatine,  sugar,  and  coloring  matter,  “resembling 
black  oil-cloth  in  appearance,”  and  which  can  be  sensitized  at 
any  time  by  fioating  it  on  a solution  of  potassium  bichromate. 
The  final  touches  necessary  for  success  were  given  by  J.  P. 
Johnson  in  1869,  and  by  the  “ fiexible  support”  patented  by 
J.  B.  Sawyer  in  1874. 

At  j)resent  the  carbon  process  is  largely  worked  by  the 


* Bulletin  de  la  Socicte  B'raneaise  de  Photographie,  vol.  ii.,  p 216. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


103 


‘‘Autotype  Company,”  of  Oxford  Street,  London,  whose 
“ autotypes  ” (carbon  prints),  made  of  any  size  up  to  twelve 
square  feet,  are  alike  beautiful  and  permanent. 

The  “tissue  ” is  usually  purchased  from  the  company,  but  if 
“ ready-sensitized,”  it  must  not  be  kept  long,  as  it  rapidly  de- 
teriorates. The  exposure  is  a somewhat  blind  process,”  as  it 
effects  no  visible  change  on  the  black  surface  of  the  tissue, 
but  it  is  rendered  easy  by  the  aid  of  an  actinometer.  The  tis- 
sue is  then  soaked  in  cold  water,  squeegeed  on  to  a piece  of 
“Sawyer’s  flexible  su^Dport,”  and  washed  with  warm  water 
till  the  paper  backing  and  soluble  gelatine  are  removed.  The 
picture  is  finally  retransferred  to  its  permanent  support,  usually 
white  paper  coated  with  insoluble  gelatine. 

From  this  brief  description  it  will  be  seen  that  the  carbon 
process  is  scarcely  suitable  for  photographers  who  “ don’t  like 
much  fuss  or  trouble,  you  know.”  It  is,  however,  admirably 
fitted  for  commercial  work  and  for  the  production  of  enlarge- 
ments. 

History  of  Printing  with  Salts  of  Uranium — Wothlytype. 
— Gehlen,  in  1804,  noted  that  uranium  chloride  is  affected  by 
light. 

But  it  was  reserved  for  J.  C.  Burnett,  in  1857-58,*  and  for 
Niepce  de  St.  Victor,  1858-59, f to  invent  a practical  printing 
process  with  this  metal  by  floating  paper  upon  a solution  (1  to 
30)  of  uranium  nitrate,  exposing  beneath  a negative  until  a 
faint  image  was  visible,  and  then  developing  by  floating  upon 
silver  nitrate  solution  (40  grains  to  the  ounce)  or  upon  chloride 
of  gold  (9  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water).  Light  changes  uranic 
into  uranous  nitrate,  and  the  latter  salt  is  able  to  reduce  gold 
and  silver  to  the  metallic  state  from  their  solutions. 

In  1864  Herr  Wothly,  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  patented  a print- 
ing process  in  which  nitrate  of  uranium  and  nitrate  of  silver 
were  contained  in  collodion,  with  which  paper  was  coated. 
Beautiful  prints  were  produced  by  the  inventor,  and  a com- 
pany, with  Col.  Stuart  Wortley  at  its  head,  purchased  the  En- 
glish patent ; commercially,  however,  it  proved  a failure. 

* Photographic  Notes,  1857,  pp.  97,  160  ; and  Photographic  Jotirnal,  1859, 
p.  317. 

f English  patent,  Feb.  27tb,  1858. 


104 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


History  of  Printing  with  Salts  of  Iron^  Cyanotype^  or  the 
‘Hlue  ProGessP — Several  chemists,  from  BestnschefE,  in  1725 
downwards,  noticed  the  action  of  light  upon  various  compounds 
containing  iron,  hut  Sir  John  Herschel  in  1840  and  1842^ 
was  the  first  to  use  the  salts  of  that  metal  for  photographic 
processes.  Of  the  three  methods  which  he  devised,  and  which 
he  named  respectively,  chrysotype^  aurotype,  and  cyanotype^ 
only  the  last-named  has  proved  of  practical  value.  Known  as 
the  “ blue  process  ” (because  the  picture  is  produced  in  white 
lines  upon  a blue  ground),  it  is  largely  employed  by  engineers 
and  others  for  copying  plans,  etc.  Paper  is  coated  with  a mix- 
ture of  ammonio-citrate  of  iron  and  potassium  ferri-cyanide, 
the  action  of  light  upon  this  mixture  being  to  change  it  into 
insoluble  Prussian  blue.  The  paper  is  dried,  exposed  beneath 
the  negative,  and  cleared  by  simply  washing  it  in  water. 

History  of  Printing  with  Collodio- Chloride  of  Silver, — 
In  a preceding  chapter  we  remarked  that  Marc  Antony 
Gaudin,  of  Paris,  had  suggested  the  preparation  of  a ‘‘  photo- 
gene ” or  liquid  containing  a haloid  salt  of  silver  with  which 
paper  or  plates  might  be  coated ; in  1861  he  prepared  such  a 
sensitive  liquid  with  the  iodide  and  the  chloride  of  silver,  but 
achieved  no  practical  success. 

At  the  close  of  1864,  G.  Wharton  Simpson  (then  editor  of 
the  Photographic  News'),^  announced  f his  discovery  of  a 
printing  process  in  which  chloride  of  silver  contained  in  col- 
lodion was  employed,  and  in  March,  1865,  he  read  a de- 
scription of  the  process  to  the  London  Photographic  Society. 
Very  beautiful  results  were  obtained,  especially  upon  opal 
glass,  but  the  collodio-chloride  paper,  though  ])repared  com- 
mercially in  Germany,  never  got  a fair  footing  in  Great 
Britain.  From  this  remark,  however,  we  must  except  Mr. 
George  Bruce,  of  Dunse,  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  who  for 
twenty  years  or  more  has  sent  out  all,  or  the  greater  part  of 
his  work,  printed  upon  collodio-chloride  paper  ; and  with  ex- 
cellent results  so  far  as  beauty  of  appearance  and  perma- 
nency are  concerned. 


* See  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  those  years, 
f “ Photographic  Year  Book  for  1865,”  p.  63. 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


105 


Leptograpliic  paper  was  a variety  of  collodio-chloride  paper 
introduced  on  the  Continent  in  1866. 

Willis’s  Aniline  Process. — In  November,  1861,  W,  Willis 
patented  a process  for  reproducing  drawings,  tracings, 

etc.,  without  taking  a negative.  Paper  prepared  with  an  acid 
bichromate  was  exposed  beneath  the  plan  to  be  coj^ied ; it  was 
subsequently  developed  by  aniline  vapor  and  fixed  by  wash- 
ing in  weak  acid  and  in  water.  “ The  operation  is  cheajD,  and 
the  result  said  to  be  permanent.  The  method,  however, 
never  came  into  general  use. 

Platinotype  or  Printing  with  Salts  of  Platinum. — Metallic 
platinum,  which,  like  several  other  metals,  is  perfectly  black 
when  in  the  state  of  a fine  powder,  is  one  of  the  most  stable 
substances  known.  It  is  not  affected  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree by  air,  by  moisture,  or  by  acids ; and  hence  any  photo- 
graph composed  of  it  may  be  reasonably  said,  so  far  as  the 
platinum  is  concerned,  to  be  absolutely  permanent. 

The  fact  that  certain  salts  of  platinum  are  sensitive  to  light 
was  noted  by  Sir  John  Herschel  in  1832,f  and  by  Hunt  in 
1844.  When  organic  substances  are  present,  the  light  exer- 
cises a reducing  influence,  changing  platinic  salts  into  platin- 
ous,  and  the  latter  into  metallic  platinum.  An  organic  salt  of 
iron — ferrous  oxalate — acts  especially  well  in  assisting  this  re- 
duction. 

In  1856,  Caranza  published  :j;  a method  for  toning  silver 
prints  with  an  acid  solution  of  platinum  chloride ; this  gives 
black  tones,  while  an  alkaline  solution  gives  brown  ones. 
Eder  and  Toth  (1875)  showed  that  collodion  negatives  and 
lantern  slides  could  be  intensified  in  the  same  way. 

The  ordinary  platinotype  printing  process,  which  has  become 
very  well  known  and  widely  practiced  during  the  last  few 
years,  depends  not  on  the  direct  influence  of  light  upon  pla- 
tinum salts,  but  mainly  upon  its  action  on  certain  organic  salts 
of  iron,  which  then  react  upon  the  platinum  salt. 


* See  Photographic  Afcws,  1865,  pp.  186-196  ; and  British  yournal  of  Pho- 
tography, March  16th,  1866. 

f Report  of  British  Association  ; Oxford  meeting. 

X Photographic  News,  1859,  p.  251,  and  La  Lumiere,  February  23d,  1856. 


106 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Herscliel  discoyered  in  1840,  that  ferric  were  reduced  to  fer- 
rous salts  by  light ; that  is  to  say,  that  under  the  inhuence  of 
light  iron  parts  with  some  of  the  non-metallic  element — oxygen, 
chlorine,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be — with  which  it  happens  to  be 
combined. 

Hunt  actually  tried  * to  turn  this  fact  to  account  in  pho- 
tography by  mixing  ferric  oxalate  with  platinic  chloride,  and 
when  dry  exposing  to  light.  He  noticed  a slight  darkening, 
but  he  missed  the  cardinal  point — that  the  ferrous  salt  must 
be  in  solution  before  it  can  act. 

It  was  in  June,  1873,  that  W.  Willis,  jr.,  the  actual  inven- 
tor of  our  platinotype  process,  took  out  his  first  patent  for 
platinotype  in  England ; he  patented  improvements  on  it  in 
July,  1878,  and  in  March,  1880.  His  process  is  now  worked 
by  the  Platinotype  Company  at  29  Southampton  How,  High 
Holborn,  London,  under  the  management  of  Mr.  Berkeley.  In 
its  latest  form,  the  platinotype  paper  is  prepared  by  coating 
paper  with  a mixture  of  chloro-platinite  of  potassium  and  ferric 
oxalate.  This  is  exposed  beneath  the  negative  until  a faint  im- 
age is  visible,  when  the  paper  is  floated  upon  or  drawn  over  a 
hot  solution  of  potassium  oxalate.  In  this  liquid  the  (re- 
duced) ferrous  oxalate  is  soluble,  and  immediately  it  is  dis- 
solved it  attacks  the  platinum  salt  in  contact  with  it,  abstract- 
ing the  chlorine,  etc.,  and  reducing  the  platinum  to  the  me- 
tallic state.  The  advantages  of  the  process  are  permanency,  a 
beautiful  black  “ engraving-like  ” picture,  simplicity  of  mam 
ipulation  and  great  sensitiveness.  Its  progress  has  been  re- 
tarded— in  Great  Britain  at  all  events — by  the  fact  that  to 
jiractice  it  a license  must  be  obtained  from  the  patentees. 

An  admirable  account  of  the  entire  process  and  its  history 
is  contained  in  a little  book  written  by  the  Austrian  investiga- 
tors, Pizzighelli  and  Llubl,  and  published  by  Harrison  & Sons, 
Pall  Mall,  London.f 


* See  Hunt’s  “ Researches  on  Light,”  1854. 
f Price  2 shillings. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


107 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HISTORY  OF  ROLLER-SLIDES;  AND  OF  NEGATIVE-MAKING  ON  PAPER  AND 

ON  FILMS. 

There  is  nothing  new  under  the  snn — especially  in  photog- 
raphy. Two  years  ago  the  introduction  of  paper  negatives  and 
of  a roller-slide  to  match,  created  quite  2^  f uror  in  both  England 
and  the  “States”;  but  from  1839  to  1855,  or  thereabouts, 
every  English  amateur  used  paper  as  the  support  for  his  “ calo- 
type”  pictures ; and  the  roller-slide  is  at  least  thirty-three  years 
old. 

Melhuish^s  Roller-Slide, — The  first  account  of  a roller-slide 
which  we  have  been  able  to  discover,  is  contained  in  a patent 
taken  out  in  England  by  J.  B.  Spencer  and  A.  J.  Melhuish,  on 
May  22d,  1851.  The  specification  describes  how  “ a series  of 
photographic  pictures  may  be  obtained  in  succession  upon 
a long  sheet  of  sensitive  pa]3er,  the  parts  of  the  paper  or 
sensitive  surface  not  in  use,  being  rolled  up  within  the 
frame  of  the  camera.  Tlie  frame  in  which  the  prepared 
surfaces  are  employed  is  fitted  up  with  two  rollers ; in’ 
using  the  apparatus  after  one  picture  has  been  taken,  that  part 
of  the  prepared  sensitive  surface  is  wound  up  on  to  one  of  the 
rollers,  and  a fresh  quantity  of  the  prepared  surface  suitable 
for  receiving  another  picture  is  unwound  off  the  other  roller, 
and  so  on  till  all  the  prepared  paper  or  surface  on  the  roller  has 
been  used.  Two  rods  or  tubes  of  yellow  glass  are  employed  to 
retain  the  part  of  the  sensitive  surface  which  for  the  time  be- 
ing is  brought  into  position  in  the  correct  plane  or  position.  It 
is  preferred  to  focus  directly  on  to  the  prepared  surface  when 
using  waxed  paper  (instead  of  focusing  on  to  a plate  of  ground 
glass),  a plate  of  yellow  glass  having  previously  been  placed  in 
front  of  the  lens  to  prevent  the  light  from  injuriously  affecting 
the  surface,  and  a plate  of  yellow  glass  is  also  placed  behind  the 
paper  for  the  same  purpose.” 


108 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The  fact  of  the  focusing  being  effected  upon  the  paper  coated 
with  silver  iodide  and  protected  only  by  yellow  glass,  shows 
how  comparatively  insensitive  to  light  were  the  materials  then 
employed.  A defect  in  Melhuish’s  slide  was  the  apparent  lack 
of  any  mode  of  registering  when  sufficient  paper  had  been  - 
wound  off  one  roller  on  to  another  to  allow  a fresh  exposure. 
It  is  clear  that  it  does  not  suffice  to  simply  count  the  number  of 
turns  of  the  roller  on  to  which  the  paper  is  wound,  since  that 
roller  continually  increases  in  thickness.  Still,  as  the  long 
band  of  paper  was  composed  of  a number  of  sheets  gummed 
together^  it  was  possible  to  see  when  one  sheet  had  been 
completely  rolled  up  by  looking  in  at  the  back  of  the 
camera. 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Photographic  Society  for  April  21st, 
1856,  there  is  a letter  from  Mr.  Melhuish  giving  an  account  of 
his  slide,  and  stating  that  my  best  specimens  at  the  Exhibi- 
tion were  taken  with  the  roller-slide.  It  has  been  used  by 
James  Glaisher,  Esq.,  E.  E.  S.;  John  South,  Esq.,  of  St. 
Thomas’  Hospital,  and  Frank  Haes,  Esq.,  who  have  expressed 
themselves  satisfied  with  its  performance.”  In  the  drawings 
which  accompany  this  note  we  see  that  the  rollers  were  placed 
one  on  each  side  of  the  camera,  instead  of  one  on  top  and  one 
below  as  in  all  other  roller-slides. 

But  in  1851  the  roller-slide  was  “before  its  time,”  and  its 
use  was  probably  confined  to  the  three  or  four  gentlemen 
named  above. 

Captain  BarSs  Darh-SlideC — It  is  singular  that  at  the 
very  time  that  Melhuish  was  striving  to  introduce  his  roller- 
slide  to  the  notice  of  English  photographers,  an  amateur 
worker  in  India — Captain  Barr — had  devised  and  was  using  a 
very  similar  instrument,  being  led  thereto  probably  by  the 
necessity  for  the  lightest  and  most  compact  form  of  apparatus 
which  could  be  constructed  in  order  to  overcome  the  difficul- 
ties of  transport  which  presented  themselves  in  many  parts  of 
that  country.  A description  of  this  very  original  “ dark-slide  ” 
— as  Cajitain  Barr  called  it — appeared  in  the  first  number  of 
the  Journal  of  the  Photographic  Society  of  Bombay^  and  was 
reprinted  in  Notes  and  Queries  for  April  21st,  1855.  It  con- 
sisted of  a narrow  box  made  to  fit  the  back  of  the  camera,  and 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


109 


containing  an  upper  and  a lower  roller,  between  and  in  front 
of  which  a plate  of  glass  was  placed.  The  sheets  of  paper 
were  fastened  to  a band  of  black  calico,  which  was  then  wound 
on  the  lower  roller,  and  one  end  of  the  calico  was  strained 
over  the  glass  and  attached  to  the  upper  roller.  This  upper 
roller  was  actuated  by  a key  which  was  worked  from  the  out- 
side, and  so  the  calico,  etc.,  could  be  drawn  from  the  lower  to 
the  upper  roller  as  desired.  The  axis  of  the  lower  roller  also 
passed  through  the  side  of  the  box,  and  was  provided  on  the 
outside  with  a short  index- roller  of  precisely  the  same  diameter 
as  the  roller  within.  On  this  index-roller  a piece  of  tape 
equal  in  length  to  the  calico  band,  was  wound,  so  that  it  was 
easy  to  jndge  of  the  amount  of  sensitive  paper  used  by  the 
length  of  tape  unrolled.  Another  valuable  precaution  is  given, 
by  Captain  Barr,  “ as  a further  precaution  against  light,  and 
to  guard  against  the  evil  effects  of  air  upon  the  prepared  paper, 
I leave  the  black  calico  band  a foot  longer  than  is  necessary  to 
carry  all  the  (sensitive)  ]3aper.  So  that  when  all  are  wound  round 
the  roller,  the  last  five  or  six  plies  are  plain  calico,  thus  excluding 
the  light.”  It  is  remarkable  that  a correspondent  of  the  Pltoto- 
graphio  News^  in  1886,  suggested  exactly  the  same  thing  for 
the  Eastman  rolls,  but  his  claim  to  originality  is  clearly  harr^d 
by  this  paper  written  thirty-one  years  ago ! Captain  Barr 
adds  another  most  valuable  precaution  which  is  to-day  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  travelers  in  hot  and  moist  climates : 
I take  the  roller  thus  prepared  out  of  the  dark-slide  and 
place  it  in  a round  metal  case,  which  has  a top  which  screws 
on  air-tight ; in  the  center  of  this  top  is  a short  tube,  opened 
and  shut  air-tight  at  pleasure  by  a small  stop-cock  ; to  this  tube 
I attach  a small  suction-pump,  and  after  all  is  thus  prepared, 
I introduce  the  roller  with  the  exposed  paper  into  the  metal 
tube,  screw  on  the  top,  and  exhaust  the  air.  Lastly,  shut  the 
cock  and  remove  the  exhaust-pump.” 

A fortnight  after  the  appearance  of  Capt.  Barr’s  j^aper  in 
Notes  and  Queries^  a Mr.  T.  E.  Merritt,  of  Maidstone,  claimed 
in  the  same  periodical  that  he  had  ‘^last  year  invented  a 
camera  with  roller  almost  precisely  similar  to  that  of  Capt. 
Barr,  but  somewhat  more  simple,  inasmuch  as  I use  a roller 
which  by  one  turn  winds  off  the  entire  picture,  and  brings 


110 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGEAPHY. 


another  into  its  place.”  Surely  Mr.  Merritt’s  roller  must  have 
been  of  a disproportionate  diameter! 

WaTnerheh  Roller-Slide. — From  1855  we  pass  to  1871,* 
when  M,  Leon  Warnerke — a Hungarian  engineer,  who  has 
done  so  much  good  work  in  England  that  he  may  he  fairly 
claimed  as  an  English  photographer — invented  what  was  per- 
haps the  first  really  practical  roller-slide.  M.  Warnerke  ap- 
pears to  have  published  the  first  account  of  his  roller-slide  in 
the  middle  of  1875. f He  writes  : “ The  principal  components 
of  the  new  dark-slide  are  two  rollers  on  which  the  sensitive 
film  is  wound,  and  there  is  room  for  one  hundred  plates.  A 
darkened  glass  plate  is  fixed  in  the  front,  in  the  place  corre- 
sponding with  the  focusing  surface ; this  glass  plate  guides 
the  sensitive  film  in  the  progress  from  one  roller  to  the  other, 
and  secures  its  proper  position.  Each  roller  has  a metallic 
head  by  which  it  can  be  put  in  motion.  By  means  of  these 
heads  all  the  ribbon  of  sensitive  film  can  be  consecutively 
drawn  from  one  roller,  and,  after  exposure,  rewound  on  an- 
other roller.  But  to  secure  perfect  fiatness  there  is  attached 
to  each  head  a pressing  screw,  that  arrangement  permitting 
the  stretching  of  the  film  when  in  position.  Before  the  sensi- 
tive film  is  attached  to  the  roller,  it  is  divided  into  sections 
corresponding  with  the  size  of  the  plates  by  black  lines  drawn 
in  pencil,  or  otherwise,  and  each  section  is  numbered. 

“In  the  sliding  shutter  there  is  a little  window  secured  with 
orange  glass  and  spring  metallic  shutter.  Through  the  orange 
glass  I am  able  to  observe  the  black  lines  forming  the  divisions 
between  the  plates,  and  their  corresponding  numbers.  This 
permits  me  to  judge  of  the  proper  position  of  each  consecutive 
plate.” 

In  1875,  M.  Warnerke’s  paper  or  tissue  was  coated  with 
collodion  emulsion.  Our  more  sensitive  gelatine  emulsion 
does  not  permit  observation  through  an  “ orange  window,”  so 
that  in  the  improved  form  of  M.  Warnerke’s  roller-slide  which 
he  introduced  in  1885,  he  used  first  an  electrical  alarm,  then  a 


*In  the  “Photographers’  Annual,”  issued  by  A.  H.  Wall,  for  1870, 
there  is  a sketch  of  an  ingenious  roller-slide,  designed  by  T.  Wiseman, 

\ British  Journal  of  Photography^  1875,  p.  306. 


A HISTOKY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


Ill 


spring  indicator,  and,  lastly,  a measnring  roller  with  indicator 
outside.* 

Modern  Forms  of  Roller-Slides. — The  idea  of  the  roller- 
slide  is,  as  we  have  seen,  essentially  English.  But  it  was  re- 
served for  the  American  firm  of  Eastman,  Walker  & Co.  (of 
Eochester,  E.  Y.),  to  step  in  and  achieve  a commercial  success 
where  Melhuish  and  Warnerke  had  failed.  This  was  done  by 
the  introduction  of  an  admirably  designed  roller-slide  of  ex- 
cellent workmanship — machine-made,  with  all  its  parts  inter- 
changeable— the  details  of  which  were  first  published  in  the 
summer  of  1885.  The  success  of  the  Eastman  apparatus  has 
been  mainly  due  to  the  facts  (1)  that  the  roller-slide  and  the 
sensitive  paper  which  it  was  to  carry  were  put  into  the  market 
together  and  by  the  same  firm ; (2)  that  the  roller-slide  was 
designed  by  skilled  engineers;  thoroughly  tested  before  being 
offered  for  sale,  and  excellent  workmanship  invariably  put  in- 
to it. 

Other  roller-slides,  all  showing  ingenuity,  have  been  pat- 
ented during  1885-87  by  Messrs.  Morgan  and  Kidd  (of  Eich- 
mond),  S.  McKellen,  and  J.  E.  Thornton  (of  Manchester), 
and  by  several  others.  But  these  are  “ creatures  of  to-day 
things  whose  descriptions  still  linger  in  our  ears.  Our  main 
object  here  has  been  to  draw  attention  to  the  past,  and  to  show 
that  the  roller-slide — like  most  other  inventions — did  not 
spring  into  being  perfect  and  full-fledged,  but  that  it  was  first 
devised  more  than  thirty  years  ago  by  Melhuish  and  by  Barr  ; 
then  improved  by  Warnerke  ; and  finally,  we  may  say,  per- 
fected by  Eastman  and  others. 

Re-introduction  of  Pajper  for  Negative-making. — We 
have  seen  thatFox-Talbot  employed  paper  solely  as  the  support 
for  the  sensitive  salt  of  silver  (the  iodide)  which  he  used  in 
his  calotype  process — so  largely  worked  by  amateurs  from 
1841  to  1855,  or  thereabouts.  By  this  method  the  silver  iodide 
was  literally  formed  within  the  paper,  and  was  much  a part  of 
it  as  if  it  had  been  mixed  with  the  pulp  when  the  |)aper  was 
made.  The  effect  of  this  was  that,  except  in  the  largest  sizes, 
the  grain  ” of  the  paper  was  disagreeably  evident  in  the  fin- 


British  Journal  of  Photography,  1885,  p.  601. 


112 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ished  print ; and,  althongli  the  waxing  of  the  paper  before 
sensitizing,  an  improvement  due  to  Le  Grray,  tended  to  obviate 
this  by  filling  the  pores  of  the  paper,  and  so  keeping  the  pic- 
ture more  or  less  on  the  surface,  yet  it  was  only  a partial 
remedy. 

However,  the  beauty,  and  above  all  the  rapidity  of  Archer’s 
collodion  process  on  glass  was  such,  that  in  a very  few  years 
after  its  introduction  in  1851,  it  knocked  paper  out  of  the 
field  altogether,  and  for  negative-taking,  glass  coated  with  col- 
lodion was  almost  exclusively  used  from  1851  to  1880,  and 
glass  coated  with  gelatine  from  1880  to  1885.  In  the  last- 
named  year  paper  once  more  came  prominently  to  the  front. 

Blanchard^ s Enlarged  Negatives. — In  1875,  Yalentine 
Blanchard  used  paper  for  making  enlarged  negatives  in  the 
following  way.  He  made  an  enlarged  transparency  in  the 
camera,  and  from  this  took  a deep  print  (which,  of  course, 
would  be  a negative),  which  he  waxed  to  increase  its  trans- 
parency, and  used  as  an  ordinary  negative.  In  artistic  hands 
this  method  offers  great  facilities  for  introducing  effects,  as  re- 
touching, etc.,  can  be  done  both  on  the  transparency  and  on 
the  enlarged  negative. 

Gelatino- Bromide  Pajper  for  Negatives. — After  the  com- 
plete success  of  gelatino-bromide  emulsion  spread  upon  glass, 
in  1879-80,  it  was  but  natural  to  endeavor  to  apply  the  same 
material  to  paper.  W.  T.  Morgan,  of  G-reenwich,  placed 
paper  coated  in  this  way  in  the  market  early  in  1880,  intend- 
ing it  mainly  to  be  used  for  printing  by  development,  after 
the  manner  suggested  by  Abney  in  the  same  year.* 

But  Palmer,  Banking,  and  other  amateurs  saw  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  new  material,  and,  cutting  the  paper  to  fit  their 
dark-slides,  used  it  for  work  in  the  field.  The  manufacturers 
took  the  hint,  and  in  1884  made  a more  sensitive  paper,  in- 
tended specially  for  negative  work.  Then  in  the  summer  of 
1885,  the  Eastman  Company’s  negative  paper  was  introduced 
simultaneously  in  England  and  the  United  States,  and  from 
the  care  and  skill  displayed  in  its  manufacture,  at  once  took  a 
leading  ])osition.  It  is  now  very  largely  used,  both  in  roll- 


* British  Journal  of  Photography,  pp.  103,  160. 


A HISTOEY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


113 


holders  carrying  enough  material  for  twenty-four  exposures, 
and,  cut  to  size,  in  carriers  which  fit  the  photographer’s  dark- 
slides.  The  secret  of  the  beautiful  results  produced  upon  the 
“negative  paper”  now  made  consists  in  isolating  the  emulsion 
of  silver  bromide  from  the  paper  by  giving  the  latter  a j)re- 
liminary  coating  of  gelatine,  the  emulsion  being  thus  kept,  on 
the  surface.  After  development  the  paper  negatives  may 
either  be  printed  from  as  they  are,  or  they  may  be  rendered 
more  transparent  by  soaking  in  oil  vaseline. 

As  a method  of  abolishing  the  “grain”  of  paper  negatives, 
Warnerke  patented  in  1885,  a process  for  covering  a paper 
with  emulsion  on  Ijotli  sicles^  so  that  any  imperfections  on  one 
side  were  corrected  by  the  image  on  the  other,  “ rendering  the 
composite  negative  perfectly  smooth,  no  matter  how  coarse  or 
imperfect  was  the  texture  of  the  paper  employed.” 

Lastly,  in  1885,  that  inventive  genius,  Walter  B.  Woodbury, 
made  paper  transparent  by  soaking  it  in  a solution  of  gum- 
dammar  in  benzole,  after  which  it  was  coated  with  emulsion  in 
the  usual  way.  This  ]3aper,  or  “ tissue,”  is  now  manufactured 
in  London  by  Mr.  Yergara,  who  has  invented  an  ingenious 
double  dark- slide  to  hold  the  tissue. 

Film  or  Necjativef<. — Yery  early  in  the  history  of 

photography  the  possible  benefits  to  be  derived  from  removing 
the  film  bearing  the  picture  from  its  glass  sip^port  were  recog- 
nized. 

In  August,  1855,  Scott- Archer  patented  a method  of  coating 
collodion  negatives  with  a solution  of  gutta-percha  in  benzole. 
When  dry,  separation  of  the  film  from  the  glass  was  obtained 
by  soaking  in  water.  The  glass  might  also  receive  a prelimi- 
nary coating  of  gutta-percha,  in  which  case  the  collodion  film 
was  enclosed  between  two  waterproof  films. 

In  the  same  year  (1855)  the  Frenchman  Galliard  coated  col- 
lodion negatives  with  gelatine,  and  then  stripped  them  from 
the  glass.  In  1877,  J.  Ik  Johnson  patented  the  application 
of  a double  coating  of  collodion  and  gelatine  for  the  same 
purpose. 

In  1861),  Leon  Warnerke  commenced  the  preparation  of 
sensitive  collodio-bromide  tissue,  which  was  introduced  into 
commerce  in  1875.  A film  of  collodion  as  transparent  and 


114 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


textnreless  as  glass  was  produced  upon  enameled  paper,  and 
this  was  coated,  first  with  India  rubber  and  then  with  collodion 
emulsion. 

After  gelatine  had  displaced  collodion.  Warn erke  (in  1885) 
manufactured  a similar  article,  using  gelatine  in  place  of  col- 
lodion, but  in  neither  form  can  Warnerke’s  tissue  be  said  to 
have  come  into  general  use. 

A notable  discovery  made  by  Warnerke,  and  patented  by 
him  in  1881,  is  that  an  exposed  gelatine  film  developed  with 
pyrogallic  acid  becomes  insoluble  in  hot  water  in  the  parts 
affected  by  light.  If  it  is  soaked  in  warm  water  and  squee- 
geed upon  a glass  plate,  the  paper  can  be  stripped  off,  and  the 
soluble  gelatine  washed  away,  leaving  a reversed  negative  at- 
tached to  the  glass.  Great  things  were  expected  of  this  process 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  but  practically  no  use  has  been 
made  of  it. 

In  1881,  H.  Rogers  showed  how  to  strip  negative  films  by 
varnishing  them  with  gum-dammar  dissolved  in  chloroform, 
and  then  soaking  them  in  water. 

The  book  on  “ Retouching,”  published  by  Burrows  & Col- 
ton in  1876,  has  for  frontispiece  an  excellent  “pellicular  nega- 
tive,” apparently  consisting  of  a film  of  collodion  coated  with 
gelatine. 

The  late  W.  B.  Woodbury  used,  during  the  collodion  times, 
a method  by  which  glass  was  siq^erseded,  the  same 

glass  plates  being  used  day  after  day.  The  glass  was  rubbed 
with  talc,  and  then  coated  with  collodion  emulsion.  After  ex- 
posure these  plates  were  developed,  fixed,  and  washed,  and  a 
sheet  of  gelatine  paj>er  was  squeegeed  to  the  finished  negative. 
When  dry,  the  whole  could  be  peeled  off  the  glass,  which  was 
then  ready  for  use  again.  At  any  convenient  time  the  paper 
bearing  the  film  was  wetted  and  squeegeed  down  to  a glass 
plate  coated  with  insoluble  gelatine.  Finally  the  whole  was 
soaked  in  warm  water,  which  dissolved  the  upper  layer  of 
soluble  gelatine,  and  the  paper  was  strq^ped  off,  leaving  the 
negative  permanently  attached  to  the  glass. 

In  1881-82,  Stebbing,  of  Paris,  and  Pumphrey,  of  Birming- 
ham, introduced  sheets  of  gelatine  made  insoluble  by  a little 
hi-ome  alum,  and  coated  with  gelatine  emulsion.  Pumph- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


115 


rey’s  ‘‘  Filmo-graph,”  as  the  camera  adopted  for  use  with  these 
films  was  called,  was  a really  ingenious  instrument,  carrying  a 
hundred  films  with  ease. 

The  Eastman  stripping  films,”  which  we  first  saw  in  the 
summer  of  1885,  are  now  just  coming  into  use.  They  consist 
of  a film  of  insoluble  gelatine  emulsion  attached  to  a sheet  of 
paper  by  a thick  layer  of  soluble  gelatine.  After  the  film  has  been 
exposed  and  developed  in  the  same  manner  as  a gelatine  plate, 
it  is  squeegeed,  face  downwards,  on  a glass  plate  coated 
with  India  rubber  solution,  allowed  to  dry,  and  is  then 
placed  in  hot  water,  when  the  soluble  gelatine  is  dissolved  and 
the  paper  can  be  readily  stripped  off,  leaving  the  insoluble  gel- 
atine film  firmly  on  the  glass.  Finally,  a skin  ” of  prepared 
gelatine  is  moistened  and  squeegeed  u23on  the  negative,  which, 
when  dry,  is  easily  stri^^ped,  as  a whole,  from  its  glass  support. 

Films  upon  Card-board. — In  1883,  Thiebaut,  of  Paris, 
patented  a method  of  coating  gelatinized  paper  first  with  collo- 
dion (hardened  by  a little  castor  oil),  and  then  with  a gelatine 
emulsion.  Such  films  could  be  stripped  dry  from  the  paper 
support  after  exposure,  development  and  fixing.  Thiebaut,  in 
1885,  substituted  card-board  instead  of  paper  as  a support  for 
the  emulsion. 

In  1886,  Pumphrey,  of  Birmingliam,  manufactured  gelatine 
films,  whicli  were  placed  upon  a support  of  thin  ebonite  cov- 
ered with  some  adhesive  substance  for  exposure  in  ordinary 
dark-slides.  In  1887,  he  used  card-board  as  tlie  support,  and 
the  film  (known  as  “ flexible  glass  ”)  is  stripped  before  develop- 
ment. The  films  are  developed  and  fixed  as  easily  as  glass 
plates;  they  are  then  dried  on  card-board,  varnished,  and  re- 
main fiat  and  highly  transparent. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Paper  and  Films. — 
The  principal  advantage  of  paper  or  films  over  glass  for  nega- 
tive-making is,  of  course,  their  comparative  lightness.  This  is 
most  felt  with  the  large  sizes — whole  plate  and  upwards — and 
is  an  especial  boon  to  travelers  and  tourists.  Then  there  is  a 
marked  absence  of  the  halation  or  blurring  which  is  so  common 
upon  glass,  surrounding  brightly-lit  objects,  or  windows,  etc., 
Avith  a mist  or  halo  of  light.  Paper  negatives  are  also  un- 
breakable, flexible,  and  can  be  stowed  away  in  a very  small 


116 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOORAPHY. 


space.  They  can  also — owing  to  their  thinness — be  printed 
from  either  side^  thus  obviating  the  necessity  in  certain  pro- 
cesses of  prodncing  a reversed  negative.  From  several  paper 
negatives  it  is  easy  to  form,  by  carefnl  cutting,  a single  com- 
hination  negative  which  shall  unite  the  good  qualities  of  each 
of  its  components. 

The  disadvantages  of  paper  are  not  many ; it  is  not  quite  so 
easy  to  manipulate  as  glass ; not  being  so  transparent  it  does 
not  yield  prints  so  quickly  ; and  no  thoroughly  satisfactory 
mode  of  varnishing  paper  negatives  has  yet  been  announced. 
The  ‘‘  grain  ” visible  in  many  paper  negatives  has  already  been 
alluded  to ; lastly,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  get  good  lantern-slides 
from  paper  as  from  glass. 

Balancing  these  points,  good  and  evil,  it  is  probable  that 
glass  will  retain  its  pre-eminence  for  studio  work  and  for  small 
pictures;  while  by  those  who  travel  and  who  desire  to  take 
good-sized  pictures,  paper  or  films  will  certainly  be  preferred. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


117 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  IN  COLORS. 

There  is  probably  only  one  thing  which  it  is  safe  to  predict 
about  the  problem  of  obtaining  permanent  photographs  which 
shall  represent  objects  in  their  natural  colors,  and  that  is  that 
the  discovery,  if  it  is  ever  made,  will  not  be  the  result  of  an 
accident.  The  question  must  be  studied  and  the  conditions 
mastered  before  the  attempt  can  be  made  with  even  the  least 
chance  of  success.  The  following  account  is  given  with  the 
hope  of  drawing  attention  to  the  progress  which  has  already 
been  made,  whence  it  will  be  seen  that,  with  regard  to  natur- 
ally colored  pictures,  we  are  now  precisely  in  the  position  oc- 
cupied by  Davy  and  Wedgwood  with  respect  to  ordinary  pho- 
tographs at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  Davy 
could  obtain  copies  of  objects  upon  paper  coated  with  silver 
chloride  (1802),  but  he  could  not  fix  them.  Similarly  it  has 
been  possible  for  many  years,  certainly  since  1848,  to  obtain 
naturally  colored  photographs ; but  no  certain  means  have  yet 
been  discovered  by  which  they  can  be  rendered  permanent. 
The  colors  fade  away  when  the  pictures  are  exposed  to  light; 
or  when  they  are  treated  with  the  ordinary  fixing  agents  ” 
of  the  photographer.  When  will  the  Xiepce,  the  Talbot, 
or  the  Herschel  arise  who  will  do  for  colors  what  tliese 
fathers  of  photography  ” did  for  pictures  in  black  and 
white  ? 

Seebeckh  Experiment^  1810. — Early  in  the  present  century 
an  oliservation  was  made  wliich  favors  the  views  of  tliose  who 
believe  in  the  possibility  of  reproducing,  photographically,  the 
natural  colors  of  bodies.  In  1810  Dr.  Seebeck,  of  Jena,  was 
engaged  in  repeating  certain  experiments,  first  made  by  Ritter 
in  1801,  upon  the  existence  of  the  ultra-violet  rays.  For  this 
purpose  Seebeck  passed  a beam  of  white  light  through  a 
prism  and  received  the  spectrum,  or  band  of  colored  light  so 


118 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


produced,  upon  a sensitive  surface  of  chloride  of  silver.  Upon 
this  substance  he  was  afterwards  surprised  to  see  distinct 
traces  of  color.  Describing  the  experiment  in  the  FarhenleTire 
of  Goethe,  Seebeck  writes : “ When  a spectrum  produced  by 
a properly  constructed  prism  is  thrown  upon  moist  chloride  of 
silver  paper,  if  the  printing  be  continued  for  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes,  whilst  a constant  position  for  the  spectrum  is 
maintained  by  any  means,  I observe  the  following : In  the 
violet  light  the  chloride  becomes  a reddish-brown  (sometimes 
more  violet,  sometimes  more  blue),  and  this  coloration  extends 
well  beyond  the  limit  of  the  violet.  In  the  blue  part  of  the 
spectrum  the  chloride  takes  a clear  blue  tint,  which  fades 
away,  becoming  lighter  in  the  green.  In  the  yellow  I usually 
found  the  chloride  unaltered  ; sometimes,  however,  it  had  a 
light  yellow  tint.  In  the  red,  and  beyond  the  red,  it  took  a 
rose  or  lilac  tint.  This  image  of  the  spectrum  shows  beyond 
the  red,  and  beyond  the  violet,  a region  more  or  less  light  and 
uncolored.” 

Ohservations  of  Herschel^  Daguerre  and  Talbot. — In  1839, 
Sir  John  Herschel  also  noticed  the  colors  produced  on  sen- 
sitive surfaces  by  the  action  of  colored  light.  He  found  that 
“ the  spectrum  impressed  upon  a paper  spread  with  the  chlor- 
ide of  silver  is  often  beautifully  tinted,  giving,  when  the  sun- 
shine has  been  favorable,  a range  of  colors  very  nearly  corres- 
ponding with  the  natural  hues  of  the  prismatic  spectrum.  The 
mean  red  ray  leaves  a red  impression,  which  passes  into  green 
over  the  space  occupied  by  the  yellow  rays.  Beyond  this  a 
leaden  blue  is  discovered.”  Daguerre  noticed  that  a red  house 
gave  a reddish  image  on  his  iodized  silver  plates  in  the  cam- 
era, and  at  an  equally  early  date  Fox-Talbot  observed  that  the 
red  portions  of  a colored  print  were  copied  of  a red  color  on 
paper  prepared  with  chloride  of  silver. 

Hunt  Obtains  DhotogragFs  Colored  by  Light. — Between 
1840  and  1843  Bobert  Hunt  tried  many  experiments  on  the 
production  of  colored  images  by  light.  By  dipping  paper 
first  into  nitrate  of  silver,  and  then  into  sodium  fluoride,  he 
obtained  a thin  coating  of  silver  fluoride.  When  this  paper 
was  exposed  to  the  spectrum  the  action  commenced  at  the 
center  of  the  yellow  ray,  and  rapidly  proceeded  upwards,  ar- 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


119 


riving  at  its  maximum  in  the  blue  ray.  To  the  end  of  the 
indigo  the  action  was  pretty  uniform  ; it  then  appeared  to  be 
very  suddenly  checked,  and  a brown  tint  was  produced  under 
the  violet  rays,  all  action  ceasing  a few  lines  beyond  the  lumi- 
nous spectrum.  The  colors  of  this  spectrum  are  not  a little  re- 
markable. I have  now  before  me  a spectrum  impressed  two 
months  since,  and  the  colors,  are  still  beautifully  clear  and  dis- 
tinct. The  paper  is  slightly  browned  by  diffused  light,  upon 
which  appears  the  following  order  of  colors : A yellowdine 
distinctly  marks  the  space  occupied  by  the  yellow  ray,  and  a 
green  band  the  space  of  the  green  ; through  the  blue  and  in- 
digo region  the  color  is  an  intense  blue,  and  over  the  violet  a 
ruddy  brown.”  Although  this  description  is  not  very  clear, 
it  seems  to  point  to  two  modes  of  treatment  of  the  sensitized 
paper.  The  colors  were  only  obtained  in  the  second  case, 
when  the  paper  had  been  insolated,  or  exposed  to  light  for  a 
short  time  before  the  spectrum  was  allowed  to  fall  upon  it. 

Other  results  obtained  by  Hunt  are  recorded  as  follows 
‘^A  paper  prepared  by  washing  with  barium  chloride  and 
nitrate  of  silver,  allowed  to  darken  whilst  wet  to  a chocolate 
color,  was  placed  under  a frame  containing  a red,  a yellow,  a 
green,  and  a blue  glass.  After  a week’s  exposure  to  diffused 
light  it  became  red  under  the  red  glass,  a dirty  yellow  under 
the  yellow  glass,  a dark  green  under  the  green,  and  a light 
olive  under  the  blue.” 

In  another  experiment  tried  in  1843,  with  paper  prepared 
witli  bromide  of  silver  and  gallic  acid,  ‘Hhe  camera  embraced 
a picture  of  a clear  blue  sky,  stucco-fronted  houses  and  a green 
field.  The  paper  was  unavoidably  exposed  for  a longer  period 
than  was  intended — about  fifteen  minutes.  A very  beautiful 
picture  was  impressed,  which,  when  lield  between  the  eye  and 
the  light  exhibited  a curious  order  of  colors.  The  sky  was  of 
a crimson  hue,  the  houses  of  a slaty  blue,  and  the  green  fields 
of  a brick-red  tint.”  Hunt  adds : “ Surely  these  results  ap- 
pear to  encourage  the  hope  that  we  may  eventually  arrive  at 
a process  by  which  external  nature  may  be  made  to  impress  its 
images  on  prepared  surfaces  in  all  the  beauty  of  their  native 
coloration.” 


Researches  on  Light,”  1844,  p,  277. 


120 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


BecquereV s Experiments  in  Color  Photography!^ — Perhaps 
the  most  successful  reproductions  of  color  by  means  of  pho- 
tography which  have  ever  been  made,  were  obtained  by  the 
French  physicist,  Edmond  Becquerel,  in  1848.  Taking  a sil- 
ver plate,  such  as  is  used  in  Daguerreotype,  he  obtained  a thin 
and  very  uniform  coating  of  chloride  of  silver  upon  its  surface. 
This  he  sometimes  effected  by  soaking  it  in  chlorine  water 
until  the  silver  assumed  a rose  tint,  or  by  dipping  it  into  solu- 
tions of  cupric  or  ferric  chloride.  By  preference,  however, 
Becquerel  placed  the  silver  plate  in  a solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  attached  to  it  a wire  from  the  positive  pole  of  a vol- 
taic battery  ; the  wire  from  the  negative  pole  being  fastened 
to  a plate  of  platinum,  which  also  dipped  into  the  acid  solu- 
tion. By  this  means  the  hydrochloric  acid  was  decomposed, 
and  the  chlorine  being  drawn  by  electrical  attraction  to  the 
silver  plate,  combined  wdth  it  chemically,  forming  a surface  of 
silver  chloride  of  great  purity.  As  the  combination  of  silver 
and  chlorine  took  place,  the  layer  of  silver  chloride  gradually 
increased  in  thickness,  and  as  it  did  so  its  color  changed  to 
gray,  yellow,  violet,  and  blue  ; and,  continuing  the  action, 
these  colors  appeared  a second  time.  When  the  second  violet 
tint  had  been  obtained,  the  silver  plate  was  withdrawn  from 
the  solution,  washed  and  dried,  and  gently  heated  until  the 
surface  assumed  a rosy  hue.  When  the  spectrum  of  sunlight 
or  of  the  electric  arc  was  received  upon  a plate  so  prepared, 
an  exposure  of  a few  minutes  was  sufficient  to  impress  the 
diverse  colors.  Colored  images  of  bright  dressed  dolls  were 
also  obtained. 

Failure  in  Fixing  Colored  Images. — After  Becquerel  had 
obtained  such  favorable  results,  it  may  be  asked,  how  is  it  that 
further  progress  has  not  been  made,  and  why  are  not  colored 
photographs  more  frequently  produced?  The  answer  is  that 
no  certain  means  has  hitherto  been  found  of  fixing  the  colored 
images  secured ; they  can  only  be  examined  in  a faint  light, 
and  must  be  kept  locked  up  in  drawers  and  excluded  from  the 
day.  They  last  longer  when  protected  from  the  air,  for  oxy- 


* See  “ Comptes  Rendus,”  1848  and  1854;  also  “Annal  de  Chimie,” 
1849. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


121 


gen  has  a detrimental  effect  upon  the  colors.  Becquerel,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  succeeded  in  rendering  more  or  less  per- 
manent f^ome^  at  any  rate,  of  his  “ heliochromes.”  One  which 
he  presented  to  Brewster  was  lent  by  the  latter  to  J.  Traill 
Taylor,  who  exposed  it  for  several  days  to  hright  sunshine 
without  injury  to  the  colors.* 

&]periments  of  the  Younger  Niepce. — ^Niepce  de  St.  Victor 
repeated  Becquerel’s  experiments,  but  he  found  it  better  to 
form  the  chloride  of  silver  by  immersing  the  silver  plate  in  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime.f  He  also  reduced  the  time  of  ex- 
posure by  coating  the  chlorinized  surface  with  a solution  of 
chloride  of  lead  in  dextrine.  Hiepce  believed  that  a relation 
existed  between  the  colors  impressed  and  the  source  from 
which  the  chloride  was  obtained ; and  in  1857  he  published 
the  results  of  some  experiments  on  the  connection  between  the 
colors  imparted  to  flame  by  certain  metallic  chlorides,  and  the 
colors  impressed  on  silver  plates  prepared  from  the  same 
chlorides.  Subsequent  investigations  have  not,  however,  con- 
flrmed  this  theory.  Hiepce  sent  specimens  of  his  work  to  the 
London  Exhibition  of  1862,  consisting  of  about  a dozen  repro- 
ductions of  prints  of  flgures  with  parti-colored  draperies.  Each 
tint  in  the  pictures  exhibited  was  a faithful  rej)roduction  of 
the  original,  including  yellows,  blues,  reds,  greens,  etc.,  all 
very  vivid.  Some  of  the  tints  faded  at  once  when  these 
pictures  were  examined  by  daylight,  but  others  remained  for 
some  hours. 

Poitevin  obtains  Colored  Copies  on  Sensitive  Paper. — In 
1868,J  A.  Poitevin  examined  and  extended  the  results  ob- 
tained by  Herschel  and  Hunt.  Taking  paper  sensitized  in  the 
usual  way  with  silver  chloride,  he  washed  it  and  exposed  the 
sensitive  surface  to  light  for  a short  period.  The  insolated 
paper  was  then  dipped  into  a solution  containing  bichromate 
of  potash  and  copper  sulphate,  and  Anally  dried.  When  such 
paper  was  exposed  to  light  beneath  a transparent  colored  pic- 
ture— as  a painting  on  glass — the  colors  of  the  jiictures  were 


"^British  Journal  of  Photog7'aphy , December  29th,  1865. 
f Series  of  papers  in  Comptes  Rendus,  1851  to  1863. 
Comptes  Rejidus,  1868,  vol.  Ixi.,  p.  11. 


122 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


reproduced  on  the  paper.  Poitevin  states  that  the  colors  so 
obtained  could  be  fixed  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Another  French  experimenter,  St.  Florent,  in  1874,  de- 
scribed * a method  of  obtaining  similar  results  in  a rather  dif- 
ferent manner.  Paper  is  soaked  first  in  silver  nitrate,  and 
then  in  a mixture  of  uranium  nitrate  and  zinc  chloride,  ren- 
dered acid  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  paper  is  dried  and 
exposed  to  light  until  the  surface  is  slightly  darkened ; it  is 
then  floated  on  a solution  of  mercuric  nitrate,  again  dried,  and 
is  then  ready  for  exposure  to  the  colored  light  whose  impres- 
sion it  is  desired  to  secure. 

Colored  Copies  obtained  with  Paper — Ahiey^s  Researches, 
— With  reference  to  colored  images  obtained  upon  paper,  Cap- 
tain Abney  remarks  :f  “It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  pure  salts 
of  silver  are  not  being  dealt  with  as  a rule.  An  organic  salt  of 
silver  is  usually  mixed  with  chloride  of  silver  paper,  this 
salt  being  due  to  the  sizing  of  the  paper,  which,  towards 
the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  is  usually  more  sensitive 
than  the  chloride.  If  a piece  of  the  ordinary  chloride  of  silver 
paper  is  exposed  to  the  spectrum  till  an  impression  is  made,  it 
will  usually  be  found  that  the  blue  color  of  the  darkened 
chloride  is  mixed  with  that  due  to  the  coloration  of  the  dark- 
ened organic  compound  of  silver  in  the  violet  region,  whereas 
in  the  blue  and  green  this  organic  compound  is  alone  aflected 
and  is  of  a different  color  from  that  of  the  darkened  mixed 
chloride  and  organic  compound.  This  naturally  gives  an  im- 
pression that  the  different  rays  yield  different  tints,  whereas 
this  result  is  simply  owing  to  the  different  range  of  sensitive- 
ness of  the  bodies.” 

But  the  colored  images  obtained  upon  daguerreotype  plates  by 
the  method  of  Becquerel  must  be  truly  due  to  the  distinct  effects 
of  different  rays  of  light,  for  in  that  case  there  is  no  organic 
compound  present  to  interfere  with  the  results. 

Acting  on  a suggestion  made  in  December,  1865,  by  the 
then  Paris  correspondent  of  the  British  Journal  of  Photog- 
raphy,, P.  J.  Fowler  (formerly  of  Leeds),  several  trials  were 
made  by  English  experimentalists,  and  in  particular  by  J. 


In  the  Bulletin  tie  la  Societe  Francaise  de  Photographie. 
f “ Encyclopaedia  Britannica,”  vol.  xviii.,  p.  835  (ninth  edition). 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


123 


Traill  Taylor  and  G.  Wharton  Simpson,  in  the  course  of  the 
following  year,  to  utilize  collodio-chloride  of  silver  films  in  ob- 
taining colored  images.  The  colors  obtained  were  not  so  vivid 
as  those  secured  by  Becquerel  upon  daguerreotype  plates,  but 
they  were  visible  by  transmitted  as  well  as  reflected  light. 

Pretended  Discomries  of  Photography  in  Colors. — A year 
seldom  or  never  passes  without  the  announcement  in  some 
newspaper  or  other  that  “ Photography  in  colors  is  at  last  an 
accomplished  fact ! ” In  some  cases  the  “ discovery  ” merely 
relates  to  a modification  of  the  well-known  mechanical  process 
by  which — several  negatives  being  employed — the  ]3icture  is 
printed  piecemeal,  each  portion  receiving  a daub  of  a separate 
color.  Frequently  the  method  adopted  is  to  render  the  pho- 
tograph transparent  and  color  it  on  the  back;  some  such  plan 
has  been  patented  on  an  average  twice  a year  for  the  last 
twenty  years  ! 

Other  reputed  “discoveries”  are  due  to  the  fact  that  by 
faulty  manipulation,  colors  of  some  kind  or  other  are  not  un- 
frequently  obtained  upon  collodion — as  in  Hunt’s  example — 
or  even  on  gelatine  plates ; or  they  may  be  the  result  of  a 
splitting  of  the  film,  giving  the  “ colors  of  thin  plates.”  Some 
novice  noting  these,  to  him,  marvelous  appearances,  writes  in 
haste  to  the  papers  that  he  has  secured  the  long-wished-for  re- 
sult—a result,  however,  whicli  he  finds  himself  unable  to  re- 
produce. 

Still  other  cases  are  deliberate  frauds.  Thus,  in  1851,  an 
American  preacher  named  Hill,  obtained  almost  general  cre- 
dence for  his  statement  that  he  could  produce  photographs 
“glowing  with  all  the  colors  of  nature!”  Aaturally,  so  won- 
derful a process  was  to  be  called  Hillotype.  The  Eev.  Mr. 
Hill  obtained  a considerable  sum  of  money  by  inducing  pho- 
tographers generally  to  subscribe— payment  in  advance,  of 
course — for  a book  which  should  contain  all  the  details  of  this 
startling  discovery.  After  many  delays  the  promised  book 
appeared ; but  wdiat  was  the  disappointment  of  the  subscribers 
to  find  it  a mere  two-penny  pamphlet  containing  the  outlines 
of  the  Daguerreotype  process,  with  com^Dlications  and  additions 
just  sufficient  to  render  the  obtaining  of  any  picture  at  all  a 
very  improbable  matter! 


124 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOOEAPHY. 


Origin  of  the  Colors  obtained  upon  Salts  of  Silver. — The 
most  recent  researches  upon  photography  in  colors  are  those 
of  Captain  Abney.*  He  states  that  the  colors  obtained  by 
Becquerel  and  others  upon  Daguerreotype  plates  are  due  to 
the  oxidation  of  the  silver  compounds  employed.  When  the 
sensitive  plates  are  exposed  in  the  presence  of  some  oxidizing 
agent,  as  by  dipping  them  into  peroxide  of  hydrogen  before 
or  during  exposure,  the  colors  are  produced  more  speedily. 

The  same  investigator  points  out  that  there  are  several 
known  molecular  combinations  of  bromide  of  silver,  which  can 
readily  be  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  fact  that  they 
absorb  different  rays  of  light. 

Thus  we  are  acquainted  with  : 

(1)  A modification  of  silver  bromide  which  transmits  and 
reflects  orange  light.  This  form  of  the  silver  bromide  mole- 
cule exists  in  paper  which  has  been  sensitized  with  silver  bro- 
mide, on  plates  coated  with  a collodio-bromide  film,  and  on 
collodion-bath  plates.  This  molecule  will  clearly  be  chiefly 
affected  by  the  blue  rays,  since  it  absorbs  the  blue  end  of  the 
spectrum,  and  work  is  done  only  by  those  rays  which  are 
absorbed. 

(2)  Another  form  of  the  silver-bromide  molecule  appears  of 
a bluish-green  tint,  by  transmitted  light.  This  modification 
absorbs  the  light  of  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  and  even  the 
invisible  or  dark  heat  ” rays  which  lie  beyond  the  red.  By 
taking  advantage  of  this  property.  Captain  Abney  was  enabled 
to  obtain  photographs  of  the  region  called  the  “ ultra  red,’’ 
which  proved  its  extension  over  a length  exceeding  that  of  the 
whole  of  the  spectrum  ordinarily  visible. 

(3)  Silver  bromide  contained  in  emulsions  which  have  been  ' 
boiled,  or  treated  with  ammonia,  appears  of  a gray  tint  by 
transmitted  liglit. 

By  an  exposure  of  two  minutes  to  the  band  of  colored  light, 
produced  by  passing  a beam  of  white  light  through  a spectro- 
scope, Abney  obtained  colored  pictures  of  the  solar  spectrum 
upon  silver  (Daguerreotype)  plates,  and  upon  collodion  films. 


“Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,”  1879,  vol.  xxix.,  p.  190;  vol, 
xxxiii,,  p.  164. 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


125 


He  considered  the  colors  obtained  to  be  due  to  the  mixture, 
upon  the  same  plate,  of  the  first  two  modifications  of  the 
silver-bromide  molecule  described  above ; the  first  absorbing 
the  light  of  the  blue,  and  the  second  that  of  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum. 

The  admirable  researches  of  Carey  Lea  upon  the  jilioto- 
salts”  of  silver,  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science^ 
during  1887,  constitute  an  important  advance,  and  their  author 
believes  that  the  new  substances  which  he  has  discovered  and 
isolated,  will  ultimately  furnish  the  key  to  the  cpiestion  of 
photography  in  colors. 

But  still  the  original  problem  confronts  and  bathes  us.  ~No 
means  are  known  of  giving  permanence  to  the  size  or  form  of 
these  color-producing  molecules ; indeed,  the  molecules  are 
themselves  decomposed,  or  radically  altered,  by  the  ordinary 
fixing  agents  ” emjiloyed  by  the  photographer. 

Under  the  influence  of  white  light  also  the  colored  mole- 
cules of  silver  bromide  change  ; they  are  decomposed  and  the  col- 
ors disappear.  And  after  all,  the  colors  wdiich  we  have  as  yet 
been  able  to  obtain,  but  not  to  fix,  by  means  of  photography, 
are  but  faint  and  dim,  poor  reflections  of  the  brilliant  tints  of 
nature. 

In  this  work  of  obtaining  naturally-colored  photographs 
there  is  clearly  a fine  field  for  experiment  and  research.  How 
many  photographers  have  attempted  even  to  confirm  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  Becquerel,  Niepce,  Carey  Lea,  and  Abney  ? 
And  yet  what  an  interesting  and  important  task  this  would  be. 

The  references  given  above  will  enable  anyone  wdio  has  ac- 
cess to  a good  library,  such  as  our  leading  photographic  socie- 
ties ought  each  to  possess,  to  ascertain  more  fully  the  details  of 
working. 


126 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

HISTORY  OP  THE  INTRODUCTION  OP  DEVELOPERS— SUMMING  UP. 

A Brief  History  of  Development. — 1.  In  Xiepceotype  the 
picture  was  ‘‘  brought  out  ” by  simply  washing  the  exposed 
bitumenized  plate  with  a solvent,  which  washed  away  those 
portions  of  the  asphalt  that  had  not  been  acted  on  by  light 
(1827). 

2.  A Daguerreotype  was  developed  by  causing  the  vapor  of 
mercury  to  act  uj)on  a surface  of  silver  iodide ; the  metallic 
vapor  condensed  on  those  places  where  the  light  had  acted,  in 
proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  light  (1839). 

3.  The  developer  for  calotypes  was  a mixture  of  gallic  acid 
and  silver  nitrate.  The  former  of  these  bodies  is  a powerful 
reducer ; i.  e.,  it  is  able  to  separate  the  metallic  silver  in  the 
silver  nitrate  from  the  other  substances  with  which  it  is  com- 
bined. This  newly-liberated  silver  is  attracted  hy  those  por- 
tions of  the  sensitive  surface  upon  which  the  light  has  acted,  and 
is  deposited  upon  them  in  the  exact  ratio  of  the  intensity  of  the 
light  (1841). 

4.  Archer  (in  1851)  developed  his  collodion  plates  by  pour- 
ing on  them  a mixture  of  pyrogallic  acid  and  acetic  acid  in 
water.  The  action  was  precisely  the  same  as  in  the  calotype  pro- 
cess ; and,  as  the  wet  collodion  film  was  already  covered  with  ni- 
trate of  silver,  there  was  no  necessity  to  add  more  of  that  sub- 
stance to  the  developer.  Ferrous  sulphate  (first  used  by  Eobert 
Hunt  in  1844)  was  frequently  employed  instead  of  gallic  or 
pyrogallic  acid  as  a silver  reducer  in  the  wet  collodion  process. 

5.  For  our  modern  dry-plate  work  all  the  developers  de- 
scribed above  have  been  displaced  by  what  is  known  as  ‘^alka- 
line development,”  in  which  the  developer  consists  of  pyro- 
gallic acid,  ammonia,  and  ammonium  bromide,  dissolved  in 
\^ater.  The  ammonia  exercises  a stimulating  action  upon  the 
pyro,  while  the  ammonium  bromide  prevents  any  action  on  the 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


127 


parts  of  the  silver  bromide  which  have  not  been  affected  by 
light  The  silver  to  form  the  image  is  obtained  from  the  sil- 
ver bromide  embedded  in  the  gelatine,  or  in  the  collodion  with 
which  the  plate  is  coated.  Light  acts  upon  certain  of  the  sur- 
face molecnles  of  this  silver  bromide,  displacing  some  or  all 
of  the  bromide,  and  leaving  (let  ns  say  for  simplicity’s  sake), 
scattered  molecnles  of  silver  to  bear  testimony  to  its  action. 
Yet,  upon  removing  an  exposed  plate  from  the  camera,  no  pic- 
ture is  visible  upon  its  white  surface.  The  reason  is  that  the 
isolated  particles  of  silver  are  too  small  and  too  few  to  be  visi- 
ble ; just  as  a handful  of  sliot  could  not  be  detected  by  the  eye 
if  mixed  with  a sack  of  flour.  But  under  the  stimulus  of  the 
alkaline  developer  tlie  reduced  silver  molecules  attack  the 
molecnles  of  silver  bromide  heneath  them,  abstracting  their  sil- 
ver, and  this  action  goes  on  until  “ the  high-lights  ’’  become 
visible  at  the  back  of  the  plate,  by  which  time  it  is,  as  a rule, 
sufficiently  developed  to  give  a dense  image  after  “ fixing,” 
as  we  call  the  process  of  clearing  away  the  unacted-on  silver 
bromide. 

The  alkaline  developer  appears  to  have  had  its  inception  in 
America.  In  1862,  the  news  reached  England  that  Messrs.  An- 
thony and  Borda  had  found  great  benefit  in  fuming  dry-plates 
with  ammonia  before  development.  At  the  same  time  Mr. 
Leahy,  of  Dublin,  found  that  a little  liquid  ammonia  added  to 
a plain  pyrogallic  acid  developer  brought  out  the  image  very 
rapidly.  But  Major  Bussell,  the  author  of  the  tannin  process, 
had  for  some  time  been  at  work  in  the  same  direction,  and  in 
the  second  edition  of  his  book  on  the  ‘^Tannin  Process,”  pub- 
lished in  1863,  we  find  the  first  complete  account  of  a worka- 
ble system  of  alkaline  development.  Bussell  not  only  described 
the  accelerating  action  of  ammonia,  but  he  showed  the  necessity 
for  the  presence  in  the  developer  of  a soluble  bromide,  in  order 
to  prevent  fog.  Since  1862,  the  carbonates  of  ammonia,  soda 
and  potash  have  been  used  in  turn  as  the  alkaline  element  of 
the  developer  in  place  of  ammonia,  but  the  latter  still  retains 
most  votaries  in  England,  although  the  fixed  alkalies  (soda  and 
potash)  find  great  favor  in  America. 

6.  In  1877,  Carey  Lea,  in  America,  and  Willis,  in  England, 
simultaneously  announced  that  ferrous  oxalate  formed  an  ad- 


128 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


mirable  developer  for  plates  containing  bromide  of  silver. 
Ferrous  oxalate  is  best  made  by  pouring  one  part,  by  measure, 
of  ferrous  sulphate  into  three  parts,  by  measure,  of  potassium 
oxalate,  both  the  solutions  being  saturated.  This  developer  has 
found  great  favor  on  the  Continent.  It  gives  clean  plates,  but 
there  is  not  the  same  power  of  remedying  an  incorrect  exposure 
as  with  pyro  and  ammonia. 

Scores  of  other  developers  have  been  proposed,  which  the 
limits  of  our  space  forbid  us  referring  to  in  detail. 

Advance  of  Photography. — From  what  has  been  written  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  progress  which  has  been  achieved  in  pho- 
tograjDhy  during  the  brief  half  century  of  its  existence  has  been 
mainly  in  the  direction  of  rapidity.  It  is  not  so  much  that  we 
take  photographs  in  1887  than  in  1839,  as  that  we  take 
them  in  a fraction  of  the  time  then  required.  The  following 
table  shows  this  very  clearly  : 


. Process. 

Date  of  Discovery. 

Time  required. 

Heliography 

1827. 

6 hours. 

Daguerreotype...  .* 

1839. 

30  minutes. 

Calotype 

1841. 

3 minutes. 

Collodion 

1851. 

lO  seconds. 

Collodion  Emulsion  Dry-Plates.  . . 

1864. 

15  seconds. 

Gelatine  Emulsion 

1878. 

1 second. 

The  above  are  average  exposures,  compared  with  a certain 
standard ; but  gelatine  plates  can  be  prepared  to  take  fully- 
exposed  pictures  of  brightly-lit  landscapes  in  the  two-hundredth 
part  of  a second.  Perhaps  the  most  rapid  exposures  made  are 
those  by  which  M.  Janssen,  the  French  astronomer, ‘daily  takes 
photographs  of  the  sun  at  the  observatory  of  Meudon,  near 
Paris,  in  the  two -thousandth  part  of  a second.  This  rapidity 
of  our  modern  gelatine  plates  has  led  to  the  invention  of  a 
great  variety  of  “ shutters,”  by  which  the  opening  admitting 
light  through  tlie  camera  lens  is  opened  and  closed  in  the  frac- 
tion of  a second.  A skillful  operator  can  take  off  and  replace 
the  ordinary  cap  ” of  a lens  in  the  third  of  a second,  but  for 
what  are  called  instantaneous  exposures  it  is  necessary  to  do 
this  in  the  one-eighth — or  less — of  a second  ; and  for  this  pur- 
pose we  replace  the  cap  by  a shutter. 

Conclusion. — And  now  we  are  compelled  to  end  our  review 


A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 


129 


of  the  growth  of  this  young  giant,  this  science  of  our  own  time 
— Photography.  W e have  said  much,  hut  we  feel  how  much 
there  is  left  unsaid.  W e desired  to  speak  of  the  improvements 
in  lenses,  of  the  application  of  photography  to  the  microscope, 
of  astronomical  photography,  and  of  several  minor  topics  the 
history  of  whose  discovery  is  the  best  road  to  their  thorough 
comprehension ; but  at  present  we  must  be  satisfied  wdth  hav- 
ing traced  the  “ main  line  ” from  end  to  end. 

And  what  lessons  there  are  to  be  read  in  this  story  of  the 
advance  of  photography.  How  beautifully  it  exemplifies  the 
tlieory  of  evolution,  process  rising  out  of  j)TOcess,  and  imj^rove- 
ment  following  on  improvement,  in  as  orderly,  though  far 
more  rapid  a manner,  as  the  horse  has  been  evolved  from  the 
hipparion  ! Let  it  be  our  task  to  sustain  the  rate  of  progress, 
and  then  the  photographers  of  the  twentieth  century  will 
esteem  our  labors  as  highly  as  we  do  the  work  of  Niepce  and 
Talbot,  of  Archer  and  Daguerre. 


130 


APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX. 

DR.  MADDOX  ON  THE  DISCOTERY  OF  THE  GELATINO-BROMIDE  PROCESS. 

Feeling  that  some  further  details  of  the  discovery  of  the 
now  universally  employed  gelatino-bromide  of  silver  process 
would  be  of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  photography,  I 
wrote  to  the  veteran  worker,  Dr.  Pichard  Leach  Maddox,*  to 
whose  labors  we  are  indebted  for  our  gelatine  dry-plates,  to  gain 
additional  information  as  to  the  steps  by  which  he  was  led  to  the 
inception  of  the  work  which  will  always  be  associated  with  his 
name.  I am  sure  that  the  readers  of  this  book  will  peruse  with 
special  pleasure  the  account  which  he  has  given  of  the  work 
done  by  him  sixteen  years  ago,  which  has  been  so  fruitful. 
Some  may  feel  inclined  to  wonder  that  having  done  so  much — 
having  advanced  so  far  on  the  road  to  success,  and  with  the 
goal  in  view — that  Dr.  Maddox  did  not  do  more,  and  himself 
perfect  his  valuable  discovery.  To  such  be  it  said  that  for  more 
than  half  a century  Dr.  Maddox  has  borne  with  patience  a pain- 
ful disease  which  would  have  incapacitated  most  men  from  all 
work  that  was  not  absolutely  necessary.  Then  the  imperative 
calls  of  his  profession,  and  the  splendid  work  he  has  also  done 
in  photo-micrography  must  be  taken  into  account,  and  when 
we  remember  all  this,  we  see  that  the  wonder  is  not  that  he  did 
not  do  more,  but  that  he  did  so  much,  and  did  it  so  well. 

And  now  we  will  let  Dr.  Maddox  speak  for  himself  : 

“ PoRTSWooD,  Southampton,  August  19, 1887. 

Dear  Sir — In  your  favor  of  the  17th  inst.  you  express  a wish 
‘^to  know  more  how  and  why  my  attention  was  directed  to  gel- 
atine and  silver  bromide  ? ” If  you  find  the  answer  rather  a 
complex  one  you  must  excuse  it  upon  its  threefold  character. 

Firstly  the  cost  of  the  collodion,  with  the  troublesome  manu- 


* Born  at  Bath,  1816. 


APPENDIX. 


131 


facture  of  the  cotton.  Secondly,  health  more  or  less  affected 
by  its  constant  use  when  working,  as  I was  in  my  camera,  a 
dressing-room,  often  at  a very  high  temperature  in  the  summer 
months ; and  thirdly,  dissatisfaction  with  the  dry  methods  for 
the  photo-micrographic  work  upon  which  I was  much  en- 
gaged. 

The  first  reason  may  be  dismissed  as  of  little  moment  when 
there  was  an  adequate  return  upon  the  work  done  ; but  not  so, 
when  there  was  an  absolute  loss  even  in  an  amateur’s  point  of 
view.  The  second  reason  was  a more  important  one.  Being 
often  shut  up  for  hours  in  the  said  camera,  the  temperature  at 
full  summer  heat,  I found  the  system  completely  saturated 
with  the  vapor  of  the  collodion,  so  much  so  that  it  could  be 
tasted  in  the  breath  on  awakening  in  the  night,  and  sleep  was 
generally  much  disturbed  and  unrefreshing,  while  it  was  much 
needed  to  restore  the  nervous  energy  wasted  by  constant  suffer- 
ing, often  verykevere  in  character  ; moreover  there  was  an  out- 
cry in  the  household  that  the  collodion  vapor  unpleasantly  per- 
vaded every  room  in  the  house.  The  third  reason  was  that  I 
could  find  no  satisfactory  dry  or  sticky  process  that  did  not  em- 
brace the  first  two  reasons,  and  add  another  of  its  own  in  the 
shape  of  additional  time  and  trouble  in  the  preparation  of  the 
plate. 

These  reasons  set  me  experimenting,  sometimes  on  paper, 
sometimes  on  glass,  with  vegetable  gummy  matters  as  lichen, 
linseed,  quince  seed,  and  starchy  substances  as  rice,  tapioca, 
sago,  etc. ; and  with  waxy  material  as  Japanese  vegetable  wax. 
Often  I fancied  I was  just  within  the  doorway  when  the  door 
closed,  and  other  plans  had  to  be  tried.  All  the  literature  I 
could  find  bordering  on  the  subject  was  searched,  but  it  rather 
bewildered  than  enlightened.  At  last  I turned  to  the  animal 
series,  and  wasted  many  eggs  and  some  little  silver;  then  I 
went  to  the  finest  isinglass  at  about  twenty  shillings  the  pound 
weight,  and  the  very  first  experiment  led  me  to  hope  I was  on 
the  right  track  ; something  had  to  be  altered,  as  I was  using 
iodo-bromide  in  varying  collodion  proportions,  and  the  isin- 
glass did  not  appear  to  yield  a sufficiently  even  surface  in  spite 
of  all  kinds  of  filtering ; yet  confidence  was  felt  that  a vein 
had  been  struck.  Search  was  now  made  in  the  house  for  a 


132 


APPENDIX. 


packet  of  JN^elson’s  gelatine ; this  afforded  a better  surface, 
especially  as  the  plates  were  dried  generally  on  a hot  one-inch- 
thick  iron  slab,  and  tested  at  once.  Then  came  the  mixture 
of  isinglass  and  gelatine,  but  the  advantages  pointed  to  gela- 
tine. The  little  plates  were  tried  under  a negative,  then  on 
out-of-door  objects,  but  it  was  impossible  to  get  some  laurels 
depicted  in  anything  more  than  black  and  white.  I remem- 
bered that  someone  had  stated  that  the  bromides  were  better 
suited  than  the  iodides  for  foliage — now  came  the  experiment 
of  diminishing  the  iodide  and  increasing  the  bromide  until  it 
settled  into  bromide  alone.  Yet  I was  not  satisfied ; but  ex- 
perimenting went  on  so  rapidly  that  often  I did  not  wait  to 
filter  the  gelatine  before  mixing  the  bromide  of  silver  in  it- 
Before  this  period,  that  talented  experimenter,  Mr.  Carey  Lea, 
had  spoken  of  the  use  of  aqua  regia,  and  my  attention  was 
turned  to  it,  fancying  that  its  use  would  decompose  some  of 
the  gelatine  and  furnish  the  extra  silver  a chance  of  forming 
an  organic  salt  of  silver  which  might  possibly  improve  the 
image.  After  working  with  this  and  getting  more  satisfactory 
results,  various  substances  were  mixed  with  the  gelatine,  as 
gum,  sugar,  glycerine,  etc.,  which  gave  different  tints  to  the 
developed  negatives,  and  it  was  seen  that  it  only  required 
further  experimenting  to  put  gelatine  into  use,  for  some  of 
the  negatives  were  fairly  plucky,  and  half  tones  beautifully 
rendered,  but,  compared  with  collodion,  the  gelatine  was 
slower,  although  it  stood  its  ground  with  some  of  the  dry  pro- 
cesses. 

Paper  had  not  been  neglected,  for  among  the  paper  trials 
with  the  gelatine  was  one  which  I thought  gave  much  promise, 
the  tint  on  development  equaling  much  of  the  kind  at  the 
present  day.  This  was  obtained  by  the  addition  of  a small 
quantity  of  arsenite  of  silver. 

There  was  no  thought  of  bringing  the  subject  into  notice 
until  it  had  been  lifted  from  the  cradle.  Soaking  the  plates 
before  use,  for,  of  course,  I knew  the  useless  salts  were  left  in 
the  gelatine,  was  noted  down  for  trial ; but  at  this  stage,  and 
while  in  the  very  hey-day  of  experimenting,  there  came  an  ur- 
gent appeal  from  my  kind  friend,  Mr.  J.  Traill  Taylor,  to  as- 
sist him,  without  delay,  by  an  article  for  the  British  Journal 


APPENDIX. 


133 


of  Photography^  of  which  he  was  then  editor,  as  he  had  been 
taken  seriously  ill. 

Without  a moment’s  hesitation,  and  thinking  it  would  give 
my  friend  pleasure,  the  hurriedly  written  and  fragmentary 
article  that  appeared  in  the  September  Journal^  1871,  was 
forwarded  to  him,  and  proofs  by  sundry  negatives  were  also 
sent,  some  of  which,  almost  entirely  defaced,  my  friend,  Mr. 
W.  B.  Bolton,  and  I found  three  or  four  years  since  among 
the  glass  in  the  office  at  I^o.  2 York  Street.  Another  pen  had 
also  come  to  the  rescue,  and  my  paper  was  deferred  to  the  fol- 
lowing weekly  issue,  when  Mr.  Taylor,  with  far-sighted  judg- 
ment, noted  the  process  had  a future  before  it. 

Health  had  now  fairly  broken  down,  rest  was  needed,  so  that 
very  little  further  experimenting  was  done ; and  as  there  were 
other  irons  in  the  fire  demanding  attention, the  process  was  offered 
to  a firm  in  Southampton,  from  whom  I used  to  get  my  albumen- 
ized  paper ; hut  it  was  found  there  was  no  time  to  continue 
the  necessary  experiments  to  raise  the  rapidity  and  enhance  its 
value.  This  was  done  at  different  stages  by  others,  almost  two 
years  after  I had  freely  given  to  the  public  what  had  cost  me 
much  time  and  labor. 

The  world  has  been  benefited  and  I have  been  honored  with 
a gold  medal  and  diploma  by  the  Jurors’  Committee  of  the  In- 
ventions’ Exliibition.  Do  not  for  one  moment  supj)ose  I ignore 
the  work  of  other  hands  in  perfecting  the  gelatino-bromide 
process,  and  thus  giving  it  its  world-wdde  value  in  all  depart- 
ments of  photography,  especially  that  far-reaching  one  of  its 
adaptation  to  astronomical  research.  I am  only  too  thankful 
to  feel  that  I have  been  merely  the  step]3ing-stone  upon  which 
others  have  safely  put  their  feet,  though  now  and  then  there 
cropped  up  the  old  story  of  the  jirophet  in  his  own  country — 
let  it  pass,  this  is  the  jubilee  year.  I am  grateful  to  those 
abroad  and  at  home  who  like  yourself  have  recognised  the 
original  claim  of 

Dear  sir,  yours  most  truly, 

B.  L.  Maddox. 

W.  Jerome  Harrison,  Esq.,  Birmingham. 


134 


A BIOGRAPHIC  SKETCH  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 


A BIOGEAPHIC  SKETCH  OF  THE  AUTHOE. 

By  W.  I.  Lincoln  Adams. 

William  Jerome  Harrison,  the  bibliographer,  as  well  as 
historian  of  photography,  was  born  at  Hemsworth,  in  York- 
shire, March  16th,  1845.  While  still  a child,  he  accompanied  his 
parents  to  Australia,  a journey  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  im- 
proving his  father’s  health,  who,  however,  died  shortly  after 
his  arrival  there.  Eeturning  to  England,  young  Harrison  was 
educated — witli  a special  view  to  his  joining  the  scholastic  pro- 
fession— for  seven  years  at  the  Westminster  Training  College, 
and  afterwards  for  two  years  at  Cheltenham.  He  left  Chelten- 
ham College  as  senior  prizeman,  and  holder  of  the  highest 
obtainable  government  certificate,  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
appointed  head  master  of  a large  boys’  school  in  Leicester. 

Mr.  Harrison’s  scientific  education  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced in  1868,  when  he  began  to  study  for  the  examinations 
of  the  science  and  art  department.  Within  the  next  ten 
years  he  carried  oJJ  the  highest  distinctions  in  chemistry,  phy- 
sics, geology  and  physical  geography,  being  double  gold 
medalist  (by  marks)  in  the  last  two  subjects  in  1872.  During 
these  years  he  spent  much  time  in  the  laboratories  of  the  gov- 
ernment science  schools  at  South  Kensington,  under  Profes- 
sors Frankland,  Yalentin,  Huxley,  Guthrie,  Judd,  etc. 

In  1872  Mr.  Harrison  was  appointed  chief  curator  of  the 
Leicester  Corporation  Museum,  in  connection  with  which  he 
established  very  large  and  successful  science  classes.  His 
original  work  at  this  time  was  done  mainly  in  connection  with 
geology.  He  was  elected  a Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society 
in  1876,  and  received  repeated  grants  from  the  Eoyal  Society 
to  enable  him  to  prosecute  geological  researches. 

In  1876  he  published  a ‘‘Manual  of  Practical  Geology,” 
but  his  most  imjDortant  book  in  this  line  is  the  “ Geology  of 
the  Counties  of  England  and  of  Korth  and  South  Wales,” 


A BIOGRAPHIC  SKETCH  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 


135 


which  appeared  in  1882,  and  at  once  was  recognized  as  a 
standard  work-.  The  establishment  of  the  school  board  sys- 
tem, in  1870,  revolutionized  educational  matters  in  England. 
When  the  new  boards  got  fairly  to  work,  those  of  the  great 
manufacturing  towns  recognized  the  importance  of  science  as 
a branch  of  education,  and  in  1880  Mr.  Harrison  received  the 
important  appointment  of  Science  Demonstrator  to  the  School 
Board  of  Birmingham,  a town  with  a population  of  half  a 
million,  situated  in  the  very  center  of  England.  With  a large 
staff  of  assistants,  well  appointed  laboratories,  and  a technical 
school,  he  has  the  direction  of  the  scientific  studies  of  about  six 
thousand  of  the  elder  children,  and  of  some  hundreds  of  the 
younger  teachers. 

For  his  success  in  the  organization  of  this  work,  Mr.  Har- 
rison was  awarded  a medal  by  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1881. 
For  continued  work  in  geology  he  received  the  Darwin  Medal 
in  1881,  and  at  the  recent  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
in  Birmingham,  he  acted  as  Secretary  of  Section  C (Geology), 
to  which  he  also  contributed  several  papers.  He  is  also  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Cornhill^  Knowledge^  The  National 
Dictionary  of  Biography^  etc. 

In  photography  Mr.  Harrison  is  essentially  a dry -plate 

man,”  not  having  commenced  practical  work  in  the  art-science 
till  1881.  He  has  devoted  his  attention  mainly  to  the  historical 
and  scientific  side  of  the  subject,  and  his  researches  on  the 
“ Literature  of  Photography  ” have  resulted  in  the  publica- 
tion, for  the  first  time,  of  a complete  list  of  English  books  on 
the  subject,  embracing  more  than  three  hundred  works  by 
about  half  as  many  authors. 

In  this  “ History  of  Photography,”  Mr.  Harrison  has  given 
the  condensed  results  of  his  study  of  the  contents  of  these 
books  ; but  he  has  also  collected  a great  mass  of  information  in 
the  form  of  all  the  ^‘papers”  on  photography  wdiich  have  ap- 
peared in  general  literature  during  the  past  half  century,  to- 
gether with  the  numerous  periodicals  which  have  been  issued 
in  connection  with  the  science. 

Mr.  Harrison’s  favorite  implement  is  a Scovill  whole-]3late 
camera,  fitted  with  the  Eastman  roll-holder;  but  he  also  carries 
a 4 X 5 camera,,  from  which  he  enlarges  and  makes  lanterm 


136 


A BIOGRAPHIC  SKETCH  OF  THE  AUTHOR. 


slides.  His  pictures,  illustrating  geological  phenomena,  at- 
tracted much  attention  at  an  important  exhibition  held  in 
Birmingham  in  connection  with  the  visit  of  the  British  As- 
sociation in  September,  1886.  From  the  Councils  of  the 
South  Kensington  Exhibitions  of  1876  (Scientific  Appara- 
tus), and  1884  (Education),  Mr.  Harrison  received  in  the 
one  case  the  thanks  of  the  Council,  and  in  the  other  a Diploma 
of  Honor  for  assistance  rendered. 

Mr.  Harrison  is  Yice-President  of  the  Birmingham  Photo- 
graphic Society,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  is 
also  a member  of  the  Council  of  the  Photographic  Convention 
of  Great  Britain. 


N]o§s  Engraving  0ompar]y^  535  'Pearl  Street.,  J^Iew  York, 


SPECIMEN  OF  ENGRAVING  BY  THE  “MOSS-TYPE” 


PROCESS. 


FROM  A PHOTOGRAPH. 


[OVER] 


SHE  “ Moss -Type”  is  a method  which  has  been 
introduced  within  the  last  few  years.  It  is  entirely 
original  and  different  from  other  methods  producing  appar- 
ently similar  results,  and  is  a large  step  in  the  advance 
in  the  realm  of  photography  as  applied  to  illustrations  as 
produced  by  printer’s  ink.  Besides  the  superior  excellence 
of  the  results  shown  and  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be 
used  on  the  ordinary  printing  press  by  any  printer  who 
understands  cut  printing,  their  cheapness,  as  compared  with 
the  other  methods  of  illustration,  makes  this  method  of 
great  importance  to  the  publisher  of  periodicals,  books  and 
catalogues.  For  these  reasons  it  is  being  very  generally 
adopted  by  publishers  of  the  present  day  as  a substitute 
for  the  older  methods  of  illustration.  The  copy  for  this 
method  should  be  clean,  sharp,  distinct  photographs  with 
the  outlines  well  defined.  Also,  from  suitably  prepared 
brush  or  pencil  drawings,  the  most  acceptable  results  are 
obtained,  while  very  pleasing  effects  are  secured  from  even 
the  most  ordinary  photographs  by  having  them  touched  up 
by  our  artists  specially  trained  to  this  style  of  work. 

Scud  green  stamp  for  onr  circidar  “Moss-Type  SPECI- 
MENS.” Send  Photograph,  Draiving  or  Print,  for  estimate. 

MOSS  ENGRAVING  CO., 


535  PEARL  ST„  NEW  YORK, 


CAMERAS,  LENSES, 
OKV-fLAftS,  CAKO  (viOUNfS, 


IE3t:o.^  Z3t;o. 


Two  Dark  Rooms  at  Your  Disposal  Free. 


Negatives  Developed  and  Printed  at  Low  Rates. 


TRY  OUR  FRESHLY-SILVERED  PAPER. 


1x9  and  121  Nassau  Street, 

TELEPHONE  CALL, 

NASSAU,  612.” 


NEW  YORK. 


1855. 


J 33  YEARS'  SERVICE  Li 


1887. 


IR  THG  ART-'SeiGRGG 


OB' 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


D0Ufit4^ 


185  and  187  Wabash 


94 


®0,  ILV- 


Send  for  Our  Illustrated  Catalogue, 

GIVING  FULL  DESCRIPTION  AND  LOWEST  PRICES  OF 

LENSES,  CAMERA  BOXES,  APPARATUS,  CHEMICALS,  ETC. 


Subscriptions  Received  for  all  Photographic  Journals. 


3F-OR  OXJTT’ITS 

IPiamish.ed.  on  Application. 


Dark  Rooms  and  Photographer’s  Services 

ITRKK  TO  PATRONS. 


IV 


A.  M.  COLLIHS  HFG.  CO., 


527  T^rch.  Street, 

PHILADELPHIA, 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


CARD  BOARD. 


Quality,  the  Best.  Styles  and  Colors  in 
Variety  Unexcelled. 


These  Standard  Goods  are  For  Sale 


BY  ALL  PHOTOGRAPHIC  MERCHANTS. 


CEOOH  *-0  JSEHOJ? 


IBst^TollstXxocl.  1865. 


Dealers  in  all  Articles  Needed  by  the 


PR0FGSSI0RAL  Amatehr 
PHOTOGRAPHER. 

SOLE  U.  S.  AGENTS  FOR 

ROSS  LENSES. 

Complete  Price  Lists  Free. 

WILSON,  HOOD  & CO. 

Uo.  910  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


VI 


WILSON. 


ALBUMEN  PAPER. 


HE  following  is  a sample  of  letters  we  are 
receiving  nearly  every  day,  and  will  speak 
for  itself : 


Hillsdale,  Mich.,  Aug.  29,  1887. 

D.  Hovey’s  Sons, 

Gentlemen:  The  “Hovey’s  Original  Special”  received  and 
tried.  It’s  “ just  the  stuff.”  I find  in  it  these  advantages  over 
other  first-class  makes  : It  is  albumenized  clear  to  the  edge, 
uses  about  one-half  as  much  gold  as  other  paper,  prints  quicker 
and  stronger,  with  clear  high-lights  and  beautiful  tones,  and  don't 
stink. 

Yours  respectfully, 

J.  A.  ROSE. 

We  will  send  to  any  address  one  dozen  sheets, 
post  paid,  on  receipt  of  one  dollar. 

Price  can  be  found  by  sending  to  any  stock  dealer 
or  to  us  direct,  and  is  the  same  as  all  first-class 
papers. 

D.  Hovey’s  Sons. 

74  ASYLUM  STREET, 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

vii 


ALBERT  M.  HARRIS, 
Prest,  and  Treas. 


A.  K.  SWERT, 
Secretary, 


WE  DEAL  EXCLUSIVELY  IN 

pi7oto^rapl7ie  (^oods. 

WE  CARRY  THE 

Most  Complete  Stock  of  any  Western  Honse. 


We  have  the  best  arranged  store  for  the  display  of  Photo  Goods 
in  the  United  States.  . You  can  be  furnished  with 

ANY  SIZE  OF  CAMERA  BOX  MADE  BY  THE  SCO- 
VILE  MANUFACTURING  COMB  A NY, 

Either  Portrait  or  View,  from  one-quarter  size  to  20  x 24,  on  an 

instant’s  notice. 


For  the  Little  Odds  and  Ends  in  the  Photo  Line,  Try  Us 


'We  are  tlie  Promptest  House  in  Micliig'an* 

HARRIS  PHOTOGRAPHIC  SUPPLY  CO., 

17  and  19  G-rand  River  Avenue, 

DETROIT. 


Vlll 


The  only  Complete  System  of  Film  Photography 


THE  (PERFECTED) 

AMERICAN  FILM. 

Send  two  2-cent  stamps  for  sample  negative  and 
circulars,  and  satisfy  yourself  as  to  what  a Film 
Negative  really  should  be. 


THE  EASTMAN-WALKER 

ROLL-HOLDER  MODEL  OP  1887, 


look  at  the  prices. 


Size. 

Price. 

Size. 

Price. 

3i  X 4i 

19.00 

5 X 7 

$12  50 

4 X 5 

10.00 

5 X 8 

12.50 

4|  X 

10.00 

6-g-  X 8-j 

16.00 

X 6i 

10.00 

8 xlO 

20.00 

4f  X 

12.50 

10  xl2 

24.00 

LIGHTER,  STRONGER,  SIMPLER. 

Work  in  the  Field  lessened. 


THE  EASTMAN  DRY-PLATE  & FILM  CO. 

ROCHESTER  AND  LONDON. 


IS 


*\L^  *\L^  nL^  ^nL^  'nU*  *sl^  'sL^  nL^  nL^  ^\1x*  *sL^  nL^  *sU* 

RAMER 

✓JS*  */jN*  ✓yC  •'^  ‘^■p-  ‘-^  ‘•^P* 


FOR  SALE  BY  ALL  DEALERS 


ggX^gX^KXXggKXXHHXXHK 


CARBUTT’S 

“Keystone”  Dry  Plate, 

PRONOUNCED  THE 

NE  PLUS  ULTRA  OF  BR7  PLATES. 


SPECIAL  lESTAETAlIEOUS  PLATES 

(Blue  Label),  Sensitometer  22  to  25.  Are  for  Portraits,  Interiors, 
and  Drop  Shutter  work.  Large  consumers  can  have  their  orders 
filled  from  one  Emulsion. 

“B”  PLATES 

(White  Label),  Sensitometer  15  to  17.  Is  the  Landscape  Plate 
par  excellence. 

ORTHOCHROMATIC  PLATES, 

for  Portraiture,  Copying  of  Paintings  and  Art  objects.  Interiors, 
and  Landscape  Views. 

STRIPPING  PLATES, 

for  Photo-mechanical  Printers,  made  with  “ B ” or  Special  Emul- 
sion as  desired. 

GELATINO-ALBUMEN  “ A ” PLATES, 

Sensitometer  12  to  14,  for  Transparencies,  on  Thin  Crystal  Glass 
for  Lantern  Slides,  and  selected  plain  and  fine  Ground  Glass  for 
Transparencies. 

CARBOTT'S  MULTUM  IN  PARVO  DRY  PUTE  LANTERN, 

AND  OTHER  SPECIALTIES. 


FOR  SALE  BY 

Scovill  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York, 

And  Dealers  in  Photographic  Materials  Generally. 

Descriptive  Circulars  mailed  on  application  to 

JOHN  CARBUTT, 

KEYSTONE  DRY  PEATE  WORKS, 

Wayne  Junction,  Philadelphia. 


XI 


Three  Grades  of  Rapidity. 

UNIFORM  IN  QUALITY. 

ALWAYS  RELIABLE. 


Acknowledged  to  be  unapproached  for  exquisite  gradation  of 
tone,  giving  perfect  detail  of  printing  quality,  from  the  highest 
lights  to  the  deepest  shadows,  thus  producing  correct  repro- 
ductions of  the  objects  photographed.  When  handled  as  direct- 
ed, they  do  not  require  forcing  in  development  or  intensifying 
afterwards. 


Portrait  and  Instantaneons. 

The  most  rapid  plate 
in  the  market — indis- 
pensable for  the  Detec- 
tive Camera. 


Rapid  Landscape. 

Of  most  exquisite 
quality  and  fair  speed, 
it  is  preeminently  the 
plate  for  out-door  work 
andphoto-micrography. 


Landscape  and  Transparency. 

The  plate  chosen  by 
the  International  Pho- 
tographic Exchange  as 
the  best  for  Lantern 
Slides.  A slow  plate  of 
unique  qualities. 


SPECIAL  PLATES  FOR  LINE  WORK. 


Stripping  Plates  of  Either  Brand. 


THE  GEORGE  H.  RIPLEY  CO.,  OF  NEW  YORK, 

Office  and  Works : 32  Tiffany  Place,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

For  sale  by 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO., 

423  Broome  Street,  New  York. 

xii 


Extra  Rapid  Dry  Plate 


ing  quickly,  devel- 
op easily  and  print 
rapidly,  giving  the 
very  finest  results. 
Clear,  brilliant, 
beautiful,  re- 
sembling in  ap- 
pearance the 
Wet  Plate 
negatives. 


With  the  completion 
of  the  new  and  large 
addition  to  our  fac- 
tory, we  are  enabled 
to  fill  all  orders 
promptly. 

Our 

Arrow  Plates 
Lead  the 
World. 


FOR  SALE  BY 


ALL  DEALERS. 


M.  A.  SEED  DRY  PLATE  COMPANY 

Works  at  Woodland,  Mo. 


ST.  LOUIS  OFFICE, 
1202  Washington  Avenue. 


NEW  YOEE  OFFICE, 
No.  2 Bond  St. 


Xlll 


Established  1857. 


©ri^s.  6©0peR  & ©o., 

MANUFACTURING 

CHEMISTS  IMPORTERS, 

194  WORTH  STRBET, 

Near  Chatham  Square,  NEW  YORK. 


Chemicals,  Medicinal,  Photographic, 

AND  FOR  THE  TRADES. 


Charles  Cooper, 
Jacob  Kleinhans, 
John  B.  Stobaeus, 


j-  New  York. 
Newark. 


Works  at  Newark,  N.  J. 


XIV 


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XV 


VoigtkdeP  \ poq’^ 

NEW 

Euryscope  Lenses 

re  IKe  best  for  ^Portraits  aad  (groups 
ever  coaslructed. 


Da  riot  E^i?5^s, 

For  Portraits,  Views  and  General  Work. 

TRAPP  & MUNCH  ALBUMEN  PAPER. 


Sole  American  Assents, 

BENJ.  FRENCH  & CO., 

No.  319  Washington  Street, 

Boston,  Mass. 

Our  new  Illustrated  Lens  Catalogue  sent  on  ap- 
plication. 


XVI 


C,  H,  CODMAN  & Co„ 


Photographic 

Outfitters, 

Wholesale  and  Retail  Merchants  in 


pi^oto^rapl^ie  /T\aterial5 

Sole  Agents  for  the 


r^BW  Of^iPHO-I^ftNAGiriNIG  IJENS. 

New  England  Agents  for 

American  Optical  Company’s  Apparatus- 


Price  I^ist  on  Application. 


34  Bromfield  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 


XVll 


THE  AMERICAM  OPTICAL  COMPANY’S 

APPARATUS, 

INCLUDING  ALL  STYLES  OF 

Cameras  ; Enlarging,  Reducing,  Copying  and  Multiply- 
ing Boxes ; Tripods  ; Plate-Holders,  for  Wet  or 
Dry-Plates  ; Printing  Frames  ; Amateur 
Outfits,  etc.,  etc.,  has  long  been 

UNRIVALED  FOR  BEAUTY  OF  DESIUN, 
UNEOUALED  FOR  DURABILITY  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

— AND — 

UMPPROACHED  FOR  FIREITESS  OF  FINISH. 

THEY  ALWAYS  GIVE  UNOHALIFIED  SjlTISFJlCTION. 

FOR  SALE  BY  ALL 

Reputable  Photographic  Dealers, 

AND  BY  THE 

SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO., 

423  BROOME  STREET, 

NEW  YORK. 

W.  IRVING  ADAMS,  Agent. 


Send  for  Latest  Catalogue. 


{(Badij  - p^epafed  ^olutioq^ 

FOR  PHOTOGRAPHERS’  USES. 


French  Azotate  (For  Toning  Prints). 

Price,  per  bottle,  ......  25  cts. 

S.  P.  C.  Pyro  and  Potash  Developer. 

Price,  per  package,  ......  60  cts. 

S.  P.  C.  Carbonate  of  Soda  Developer. 

Price,  per  package,  ......  50  cts. 

HalPs  Intensifier  (For  Strengthening 

Weak  Negatives).  Price,  per  bottle,  . . .75  cts. 

Flandreau’s  S.  P.  C.  Hypo  Eliminator 

(For  Removing  every  trace  of  Hyposulphite  of 
Soda  from  Negatives  and  Prints).  Price,  per  bot- 
tle, with  book  of  testing  paper,  . . . .50  cts. 

Flandreau’s  S.  P.  C.  Orthochromatic 

Solution,  by  which  any  plate  may  be  rendered 
color-sensitive.  Price,  per  package,  $1.50 

Flandreau’s  S.  P.  C.  Retouching  Fluid, 

for  Varnished  or  Unvarnished  Negatives.  Price, 

per  bottle,  ........  25  cts. 


For  sale  by  all  dealers  in  Photographic  Requisites,  and  by  the 

SCOTILL  MAinJFACTIIB,IH&  COMPAST. 


XIX 


Tasteful,  well  edited  and  crammed  full  of  technical  information  is  The  Photographic  Times.’ 

The  Journalist. 

“ The  Photographic  Times  is  an  able,  vigorous,  and  enterprising  periodical.”— 5enj.  French  c&  Co. 


The  Photographic  Times, 

Is  a WEEKLY  JOURNAL  devoted  to  the 


THEORY,  PRACTICE,  aii  AITANCEMENT  (f  PHOTORRAPHY. 

ITS  DElPARTJVIENrTS 

Editorial —Articles  on  practical  subjects,  and  General  Editorial  Notes. 

Contributed  and  Miscellaneous  Articles  by  the  best  photographic  writers  at  home 
and  abroad. 

Communications  to  Societies,  Including  Papers,  Lectures,  Demonstrations,  etc. 

Meeting:s  of  Societies— Stating  date  and  place  of  meeting  of  all  Photographic  Societies, 
both  professional  and  amateur,  and  giving  full  proceedings  of  all  meetings. 

Correspondence — Scientific  and  practical  discussion  of  important  and  interesting  questions, 
by  practical  photographers,  and  letters  from  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  by  intelligent  and 
observing  correspondents. 

Our  Editorial  Xable— Reviews  of  books,  exchanges,  etc. 

Eictures  KLeceived— Impartial  criticism  and  notice  of  all  photographs  sent  in. 

IHotes  and  Queries— Answers  by  the  Editors  to  correspondents  in  search  of  knowledge. 

Commercial  Intelligrence— Description  of  new  photographic  appliances,  studio  changes 
and  a record  of  photographic  patents. 


A PAETIAL  LIST  OF  WRITERS  TO  THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  TIMES. 


Capt.  W.  de  W.  ABNEY,  ....  England. 
W.  M.  Ashman,  ... 

Prof.  W.  K.  Burton, 

W.  E.  Debenham,  . 

H.  P.  Robinson, 

G.  Watmough  Webster,  . 

Arnold  Spiller, 

W.  Jerome  Harrison, 

Andrew  Pringle, 

Charles  Scolik, 

Dr.  Mallman, 

Karl  Schwier, 

Victor  Schumann, 

W.  J.  Stillman,  . 

Dr.  H.  D.  Garrison, 

S.  W.  Burnham,  . 

Henry  L.  Talman, 

Gayton  a.  Douglass, 

A.  Hester, 

Gustav  Cramer,  . 

J,  F.  Edgeworth 
W.  H.  Sherman, 

George  Eastman, 

David  Cooper, 

Prof.  H.  W.  Lord, 

H.  McMichael, 

John  Carbutt, 


W.  H.  Walmsley, Philadelphia. 

Frederick  a.  Jackson,  ....  New  Haven. 
Prof.  Randall  Spaulding,  . . . Montclair,  N.  J. 

Prof,  Wm.  Harkness,  U.S.N.,  . Washington,  D.  C. 

Dr.  John  H.  Janeway, U.  S.  A. 

C.  D.  Cheney,  D.D.S.,  ....  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Prof.  Karl  Klauser,  . , . . Farmington. 

Geo.  H.  Johnson, Bridgeport. 

Miss  Adelaide  Skeel Newburgh. 

Charles  Wager  Hull New  York. 

Rev.  G.  M.  Searle, “ 

C.  W.  Canfield “ 

P.  C.  Duchochois “ 

Henry  M.  Parkhurst, “ 

Rev.  C.  E.  Woodman,  Ph.D., “ 

H.  Edwards -Ficken, “ 

S.  H.  Horgan, “ 

Wm,  Kurtz, . “ 

J.  M.  Mora • . . “ 

Prof.  L.  C.  Laudy, “ 

A.  Bogardus, “ 

Chas.  D.  Fredricks, “ 

A.  Moreno, “ 

C.  W.  Dean,  ........  “ 

Dr.  O.  G.  Mason, “ 

Ernest  Edwards ‘‘ 

Dr.  Chas.  Ehrmann, “ 


. Scotland. 
Vienna. 

Germany. 

Rome. 

Chicago. 


St.  Louis. 

Milwaukee. 

Rochester. 

Columbus. 

Buffalo. 

. Philadelphia. 

W.  I.  LINCOLN  ADAMS,  Editor. 


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last  Friday  in  the  month. 


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SCOVILL  MANUFACTURING  CO., 

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” The  Photographic  Times  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  technical  journals  published.” 

Lowell  Morning  Times. 

“It  is  the  leading  publication  of  its  class,  bright,  newsy,  interesting  and  instructive.  The  Times 
has  a wide  field,  which  it  fills  completely.”— T/ie  Failway  News. 


XX 


“ FHOTOimilFVIi;  FBIHTIHi:  PIETBODS,” 

A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  TO  THE  PROFESSIONAL  AND  AMATEUR 

WORKER. 

Scovill’s  Photographic  Series,  Unmher  Twenty-two. 

By  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Burbank, 

Is  a volume  of  more  than  200  pages,  uniform  in  size  and  type  with  the  other  numbers 
of  the  Scovill  Photo-  Series  ; is  neatly  bound  in  cloth,  with  gilt  titling ; and  both  inside 
and  out  makes  a most  attractive  appearance. 

Treating  as  it  does  of  afield  in  photographic  literature  so  long  neglected,  and  one 
which  is  so  important  to  all  practical  photographers,  this  book  will  undoubtedly  have  a 
wide  sale;  It  is  the  only  book  in  photographic  literature  to-day,  which  covers  this  groxind, 
and  it  does  so  completely. 

The  chapters  which  it  contains  on  the  following  subjects,  give  an  idea  of  its  com- 
pleteness and  practical  value : 

INTRODUCTION — Theory  of  Light;  Action  of  Light  Upon  Sensitive  Compounds 
Resume  of  Printing  Processes. 

Chapter  I. — Printing  with  Iron  and  Uranium  Compounds. 

Chapter  II. — The  Silver  Bath. 

Chapter  III. — Fuming  and  Printing. 

Chapter  IV. — Toning  and  Fixing— Washing. 

Chapter  V.—  Printing  on  other  than  Albumen  Paper. 

Chapter  VI. — The  Platinotype. 

Chapter  VII. — Printing  with  Emulsions. 

Chapter  VIII. — Mounting  the  Prints. 

Chapter  IX. — Carbon  Printing. 

Chapter  X. — Printing  on  Fabrics 
Chapter  XL— Enlargements. 

Chapter  XIL— Transparencies  and  Lantern  Slides. 

Chapter  XIII. — Opal  and  Porcelain  Printing. 

Chapter  XIV. — Photo.  Ceramics — Enamelled  Intaglios. 

Chapter  XV. — Photo-Mechanical  Printing  Methods. 

Chapter  XVI. — Various  Methods  for  Putting  Pictures  on  Blocks  and  Metal  Plates 
FOR  THE  Use  of  the  Engraver. 

Chapter  XVII. — Recovery  of  Silver  from  Photographic  Wastes — Preparation  of 
Silver  Nitrate,  etc. 

INDEX. 

It  also  contains  two  (2)  full  page  illustrations,  which  alone  are  worth  the  price  asked 
for  the  complete  book. 


PEIOE,  IN  SUBSTANTIAL  CLOTH  BINDING.  $1.00.7.l 


For  sale  by  all  dealers  and  by 


fiL- 

SCOYILL  MANUFACTURIKG  CO.,  Publlsliers, 


W.  inriNG  ADAMS,  Agent. 


SOME  OEIN^IONS. 

“ A handsome,  large  octavo  volume,  * * filled  with  formulae  and  methods.” — 
A ntho7iy  s Photographic  Bulletin. 

“ It  fills  a field  in  Photographic  literature  which  has  long  been  neglected,  and  it  does 
so  completely.” — The  Photographic  Times. 

“ The  photographic  world  will  be  under  no  small  obligation  for  this  very  convenient 
compendium  of  all  that  is  most  wanted  as  information  and  instruction,  whether  to  the 
practiced  printer  who  sometimes  forgets  formulae,  or  to  the  beginner  who  has  them  all  to 
learn.” — The  Nation. 

” A good  general  hand-book  of  printing  methods  has  for  some  time  been  one  of  the 
things  needed  in  the  English  language,  and  we  congratulate  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Burbank  on 
the  way  he  has  filled  the  need.”— Photographic  News. 

” The  reverend  author  is  entitled  to  much  credit.” — British  Journal  of  Photography. 

” It  is  a splendid  work — thoroughly  practical.  Well  worth  double  its  price.” — The  Phil- 
adelphia Photographer . 

” The  Rev.  W.  H.  Burbank  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  his  exploit.” — W.  M.  Ash^nan. 

” It  is  a valuable  book  for  every  photographic  printer.  It  treats  very  thoroughly  of 
all  known  processes.”— 5’^.  Louis  Photographer. 

“ This  is  the  best  selling  book  I ever  \ia.d. "—Satft  C.  Partridge. 

More  than  500  copies  sold  within  the  first  month  after 

publication. 


XXI 


A STAHDAM  BOOK  OP  EEPEUEITOE. 


THE 

AMERICAIT  AmUAL  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY 

AND 

“PHOTOaRAPHIC  TIMES”  ALMAHAC 

For  1887, 

C.  W.  CANFIELD,  Editor, 

ARE  RAPIDLY  DISAPPEARING. 

It  contains  five  full  page  illustrations  : 

AN  EXQUISITE  PHOTO  GRAYURE,  by  Ernest  Edwards. 

A BROMIDE  PRINT,  by  the  Eastman  Company. 

A SILTER  PRINT,  by  Gustav  Cramer,  of  St.  Louis. 

TWO  MOSSTYPES,  by  the  Moss  Engraving  Company. 

197  pages  of  Contributed  Matter,  consisting  of  articles  on  various 
subjects,  by  80  representative  writers  of  this  country  and  Europe. 
Also,  in  addition  to  the  contributed  articles  : — Yearly  Calendar.  Eclip- 
ses, the  Seasons.  Church  Days,  Holidays,  etc.  Monthly  Calendar,  giving 
Sunrise  and  Sunset  for  every  day  in  the  year  ; Moon’s  phases  ; also,  dates 
of  meetings,  of  all  American  Photographic  Societies.  A list  of  American 
and  European  Photographic  Societies.  Photographic  Periodicals,  Ameri- 
can and  European.  Books  relating  to  Photography,  published  1886.  Ap- 
proved Standard  Formulae  for  all  processes  now  in  general  use.  Tables 
of  Weights  and  Measures.  American  and  Foreign  Money  Values.  Com- 
parisons of  Thermometric  Readings.  Comparisons  of  Barometric  Read- 
ings. Symbols  and  Atomicity  of  the  Chemical  Elements.  Symbols, 
Chemical  and  common  names  and  solubilities  of  the  substances  used  in 
Photography.  Tables  for  Enlargements  and  Reductions.  Equations  re- 
lating to  Foci.  Tables  of  Comparative  Exposures.  Freezing  Mixtures. 
Photographic  Patents  issued  1886.  Postage  Rates.  All  Tables,  Formulae, 
etc.,  brought  down  to  date  and  especially  prepared  or  revised  for  this  work 

IPricSf  per  Copy,  SO  Cents,  J^ostage,  lOc^ 

“ Cloth  Bound,  $1.00. 

A few  author’s  copies,  bound  in  white  leatherette,  gilt  lettering, 
and  printed  upon  laid  paper,  each  $2.50. 

For  sale  by  all  dealers,  and  by  the  publishers, 

SOOVILL  MANUFAOTUEING  COMPANY. 

xxii 


ScoYill’s  Photographic  Series. 


Price, 
Per  Copy. 

xNo.  I.— THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  AMATEUR.—  By  J.  Traill  Taylor.  A Guide 

to  the  Young  Photographer,  either  Professional  or  Amateur.  (Second  Ed.)  |o  50 

No.  2.— THE  ART  AND  PRACTICE  OF  SILVER  PRINTING.  (Second  Edition)  5c 

No.  3. — Out  of  print. 

No.  4.— HOW  TO  MAKE  PICTURES.— (Fourth  edition.)  The  AB  C of  Dry-Plate 
Photography.  By  Henry  Clay  Price.  Illuminated  Cover,  50  cts. ; 

Cloth  Cover 75 

No.  5.— PHOTOGRAPHY  WITH  EMULSIONS.— By  Capt.  W.  De  W.  Abney, 

R.E.,  F.R.S.  A treatise  on  the  theory  and  practical  working  of  Gelatine 
and  Collodion  Emulsion  Processes.  (Second  Edition.) i 00 

No.  6. — No.  17  has  taken  the  place  of  this  book. 

No.  7.— THE  MODERN  PRACTICE  OF  RETOUCHING.— As  practiced  by  M. 

Piguepe,  and  other  celebrated  experts.  (Third  Edition) 25 

No.  8.— THE  SPANISH  EDITION  OF  HOW  TO  MAKE  PICTURES.— Ligeras 

Lecciones  sobre  Fotografia  Dedicados  a Los  Aficionados i 00 

No.  9.— TWELVE  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  IN  PHOTOGRAPHIC  CHEM- 
ISTRY.- Presented  in  very  concise  and  attractive  shape.  (Second  Edition.)  25 

No.  10.— THE  BRITISH  JOURNAL  PHOTOGRAPHIC  ALMANAC  FOR  1883.  25 

No.  II. — Out  of  print. 

No.  12. — HARDWICH’S  CHEMISTRY. — A manual  of  photographic  chemistry, 
theoretical  and  practical.  Ninth  Edition.  Edited  by  J.  Traill  Taylor, 
Leatherette  Binding 2 50 

No.  13.— TWELVE  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  ON  SILVER  PRINTING. 

(Second  Edition) 50 

No.  14.— ABOUT  PHOTOGRAPHY  AND  PHOTOGRAPHERS.— A series  of  in- 
teresting essays  for  the  studio  and  study,  to  which  is  added  European 
Rambles  with  a Camera.  By  H.  B.aden  Pritchard,  F.C.S 50 


No.  15.— THE  CHEMICAL  EFFECT  OF  THE  SPECTRUM.— By  Dr.  J.  M. 

Eder 25 

No.  16.— PICTURE  MAKING  BY  PHOTOGRAPHY.—  By  H.  P.  Robinson. 

Author  of  Pictorial  Effect  in  Photography.  Written  in  popular  form  and 
finely  illustrated.  Illuminated  Cover,  75  cts. ; Cloth i 00 

No.  17.— FIRST  LESSONS  IN  AMATEUR  PHOTOGRAPHY.—  By  Prof.  Ran- 
dall Spaulding.  A series  of  popular  lectures,  giving  elementary  instruc- 
tion in  dry-plate  photography,  optics,  etc.  (Second  Edition) 25 

No.  18.— THE  STUDIO:  AND  WHAT  TO  DO  IN  IT.- By  H.  P.  Robinson. 

Author  of  Pictorial  Effect  in  Photography,  Picture  Making  by  Photog- 
raphy, etc.;  Illuminated  Cover 75 

No.  19.— THE  MAGIC  LANTERN  MANUAL.—  (Second  edition.)  By  W.  I. 

Chadwick.  With  one  hundred  and  five  practical  illustrations  ; cloth 75 


No.  20.-DRY  PLATE  MAKING  FOR  AMATEURS.-By  Geo.  L.  Sinclair,  M.D.,  50 

No.  21.— THE  AMERICAN  ANNUAL  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  AND  PHOTO- 
GRAPHIC TIMES  ALMANAC  FOR  1887.— (Second  Edition.)  50  cents; 
(postage,  ten  cents  additional).  Cloth  bound i 00 

No.  22.— PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRINTING  METHODS.— By  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Bur- 
bank. A Practical  Guide  to  the  Professional  and  Amateur  Worker.  Cloth 
Binding i 00 

No.  23.- A HISTORY  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  : Written  as  a Practical  Guide  and  an 
Introduction  to  its  Latest  Developments,  by  W.  Jerome  Harrison,  F.  G.  S., 
and  containing  a frontispiece  of  the  author.  Cloth  bound i 00 


XXlll 


SCOVILL’S 

OTHER 

Photographic  Publications. 

Price, 
Per  Copy 

HOW  TO  MAKE  PHOTOGRAPHS. — Containing  full  instructions  for  making  Pa- 
per Negatives.  Sent  free  to  any  practitioner  of  the  art.  New  edition  just  out. . 

ART  RECREATIONS. — A guide  to  decorative  art.  Ladies’  popular  guide  in  home 

decorative  work.  Edited  by  Marion  Kemble 2 00 

THE  FERROTYPERS’  GUIDE. — Cheap  and  complete.  For  the  ferrotyper,  this 

is  the  only  standard  work.  Seventh  thousand 75 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  STUDIOS  OF  EUROPE.— By  H.  Baden  Pritchard, 

F.C.S.  Paper,  50  cts.  ; Cloth.... i 00 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  MANIPULATION.— Second  edition.  Treating  of  the  practice 

of  the  art  and  its  various  applications  to  nature.  By  Lake  Price i 50 

HISTORY  AND  HAND-BOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY.— Translated  from  the 

French  of  Gaston  Tissandier,  with  seventy  illustrations 2 50 

AMERICAN  CARBON  MANUAL, — For  those  who  want  to  try  the  carbon  print- 
ing process,  this  work  gives  the  most  detailed  information 2 00 

MANUAL  DE  FOTOGRAFIA.— By  Augustus  Le  Plongeon.  (Hand-Book  for 

Spanish  Photographers.)  Reduced  to i.oo 

SECRETS  OF  THE  DARK  CHAMBER.-  By  D.  D.  T.  Davie Si  00 

HOW  TO  SIT  FOR  YOUR  PICTURE.— By  Chip.  Racy  and  sketchy 30 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHER’S  GUIDE.— By  John  Towler,  M.D.  A text-book  for 

the  Operator  and  Amateur i 50 

A COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON  SOLAR  CRAYON  PORTRAITS  AND 
TRANSPARENT  LIQUID  WATER  COLORS.— By  J.  A.  Barhydt.  Practical 
ideas  and  directions  given.  Amateurs  will  learn  ideas  of  color  from  this  book 
that  will  be  of  value  to  them.  And  any  one  by  carefully  following  the  directions 
on  Crayon,  will  be  able  to  make  a good  Crayon  Portrait 50 

THE  BRITISH  JOURNAL  ALMANAC  FOR  1887 50 

PHOTO  NEWS  YEAR  BOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  for  1887 50 

CANOE  AND  CAMERA.— A Photographic  tour  of  two  hundred  miles  through 

Maine  forests.  By  Thomas  Sedgwick  Steele.  Illustrated i 50 

PADDLE  AND  PORTAGE.— By  Thomas  Sedgwick  Steele  i 50 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTOR  OF  PHOTO-ENGRAVING  AND  ZINC  ETCH- 
ING PROCESSES. — By  Alex.  F.  Leslie 5c 

PHOTO-ENGRAVING  on  Zinc  and  Copper  in  Line  and  Half-Tone,  and  PHOTO- 
LITHOGRAPHY. A Practical  Manual,  by  W.  T.  Wilkinson.  Cloth  bound.  ..200 


PHOTO&BAPHIC  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Price, 
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AMERICAN  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  DAGUERREOTYPE.— By  S.  D.  Hum- 
phrey. (Fifth  Edition.)  This  book  contains  the  various  processes  employed  in 
taking  Hehographic  impressions 10 

THE  NEW  PRACTICAL  PHOTOGRAPHIC  ALMANAC.- Edited  by  J.  H. 

Fit?gibbon 25 

MOSAICS  FOR  1870,  1871,  1872,  1873,  1875,  1878,  1882,  1883,  1884 25 

BRITISH  JOURNAL  ALMANAC  FOR  1878,  1882 25 

PHOTO.  NEWS  YEAR-BOOK  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  1871,  1882 25 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHER’S  FRIEND  ALMANAC  FOR  1873 25 


XXIV 


Wilson’s  Photographic  Pnbllcations, 


Price, 
Per  Copy. 

WILSON’S  PHOTOGRAPHICS.—  By  Edward  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  The  newest 
and  most  complete  photographic  lesson-book.  Covers  every  department. 

352  pages.  Finely  illustrated 4 00 


WILSON’S  QUARTER  CENTURY  IN  PHOTOGAPHY.-By  Edward  L.  Wil- 
son, Ph.D.  “The  best  of  everything  boiled  out  from  all  sources.’’  Pro- 
fusely illustrated,  substantially  bound 4 00 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY  SINCE  THE  YEAR  1879.— By  Dr.  H. 

W.  Vogel,  Professor  and  Teacher  of  Photography  and  Spectrum  Analysis  at  the 
Imperial  Technical  High  School  in  Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
Ellerslie  Wallace,  Jr.,  M.  D.  Revised  by  Edward  L.  Wilson,  Editor  of  the 
Philadelphia  Photographer.  A review  of  the  more  important  discoveries  in 
Photography  and  Photographic  Chemistry  within  the  last  four  years,  with 
special  consideration  of  Emulsion  Photography  and  an  additional  chapter  on 
Photography  for  Amateurs.  Intended  also  as  a supplement  to  the  Third  Edition 
of  the  Handbook  of  Photography.  Embellished  with  a full-page  electric-light 
portrait  by  Kurtz,  and  sevent5^-two  wood  cuts 3 00 


PHOTOGRAPHERS’  POCKET  REFERENCE  BOOK.— By  Dr.  H.  W.  Vogel. 

For  the  dark  room.  It  meets  a want  filled  by  no  other  book.  Full  of  formulas— 
short,  practical  and  plain i 50 

PICTORIAL  EFFECT  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY.-By  H.  P.  Robinson.  For  the  art 

photographer.  Cloth,  Si. 50;  paper  cover 1 00 

WILSON’S  LANTERN  JOURNEYS.-By  Edward  L.  Wilson,  Ph.D.  In  two 
volumes.  For  the  Lantern  Exhibitor.  Gives  incidents  and  facts  in  entertain- 
ing style  of  about  2,000  places  and  things,  including  200  of  the  Centennial  Exhibi- 
tion. Per  volume 2 00 

THE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  COLORISTS'  GUIDE.-By  John  L.  Giiion.  The 

newest  and  best  work  on  painting  photographs;  Cloth i 50 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  MOSAICS.  Published  annually.  Cloth  bound,  fi.oo;  Paper 


PHILADELPHIA  PHOTOGRAPHER. — Published  Semi-Monthly.  Illustrated. 

Per  year,  $5.00  ; with  weekly  Photographic  Times 6 50 


XXV 


SOMH  OPINIONS 

OF  THE 

Photographic  Times. 


I CONGRATULATE  you  OH  making  the  Photographic  Times  the  leader 
of  American  photographic  periodicals.  A.  B,  Stebbins. 

We  cannot  keep  house  without  the  Times.  W.  H.  Dunwick. 

Your  Photographic  Times  gets  better  every  number.  Fred.  White- 
head,  Augustine,  Fla. 

I AM  very  much  pleased  with  the  Times,  and  value  it  more  highly  than 
any  other  I have  seen.  John  M.  Rae,  Sutton,  West,  P.  O. 

After  seeing  a specimen  copy  I could  not  possibly  do  without  the 
Photographic  Times,  Fred.  Whitehead,  Augustine,  Fla. 

Without  your  journal  the  fraternity  are  behind  the  times,  and,  like  a 
crab,  are  moving  backwards.  A.  K.  A.  & M.  Liebich,  Cleveland,  O. 

Any  Photographer  that  will  go  without  the  Times  weekly,  ought  to  go 
without  his  head.  J.  W.  Alldings,  Waterbury. 

It  is  a most  admirably  arranged  journal,  presents  a handsome  appear- 
ance, and  is  a credit  to  its  publishers.  John  Worthington,  U.  S.  Consul. 

In  behalf  of  the  Times  allow  me  to  say  that  I have  been  a regular  sub- 
scriber for  nearly  three  years,  and  though  I take  a large  number  of  jour- 
nals of  various  kinds,  there  is  none  I look  for  with  more  interest  than 
the  Times.  Prof.  W.  S.  Goodnough. 

I BELIEVE  it  unnecessary  to  state  that  I regard  the  Times  as  one  of  the 
best  journals  devoted  to  photography  published  in  the  English  language, 
and  find  many  others  of  a like  opinion.  John  G.  Casselbaun. 

All  here  (England)  who  have  any  real  knowledge  of  the  subject,  agree 
that  the  Times  is  the  best  medium  in  America.  W.  M.  Ashman. 

I bind  my  Times  each  year,  and  find  it  makes,  with  a good  index,  a 
very  valuable  storehouse  of  information.  G.  F.  H.  Bartlett. 

I RECEiv'E  my  weekly  Times,  and  am  delighted  with  its  fresh  and  in- 
structive contents,  giving  at  all  times  something  to  think  about  and  ex- 
periment with.  A.  S.  Murray,  President  of  the  Pittsbu^'gh  Amateur  Photo- 
graphic Society. 

As  times  were  rather  tight  this  spring,  I thought  to  economize  by 

taking  the , but  it  is  too  much  watered — too  thin  entirel}^  too  much 

chaff  to  the  kernel  of  wheat.  I can’t  live  on  husks  alone  ; please  take  pity 
on  me  and  send  the  weekly  Photographic  Times  from  the  beginning  of 
the  present  volume,  and  oblige,  E.  Ferris,  Malone,  New  York, 

The  Times  is  a very  great  help  to  beginners  in  the  art  of  photography 
like  myself.  Unlike  many  other  journals,  your  articles  are  practical  and 
simple,  and  a wonderful  help  to  those  of  us  who  are  trying  to  learn  to 
*'■  take  pictures.”  I read  it  with  intense  interest,  and  hope  that  you  will 
continue  to  make  it  a journal  for  amateurs  as  well  as  for  those  more  ad- 
vanced in  the  art.  A.  D.  Cutter,  Cleveland,  O. 


XXVI 


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